The phrase “carbon-based life forms,” is often used in science-fiction books and movies by aliens to describe the creatures of Earth, the only planet known to support life. Not only all living things contain carbon but also carbon is in plenty of things that were once living and now are the source for living, which makes it useful for dating the remains of past settlements on Earth. Of even greater usefulness is petroleum, a substance containing carbon-based forms that died long ago, became fossilized, and ultimately changed chemically into fuels. Then again, not all materials containing carbon were once living creatures; yet because carbon is a common denominator to all living things on Earth, the branch of study known as organic chemistry is devoted to the study of compounds containing carbon. Though among the most important organic compounds are the many carboxylic acids that are vital to life, carbon is also present in numerous important inorganic compounds, most notably its small but unavoidable compounds such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and carbonates.

Carbon’s name comes from the Latin word carbo, or charcoal which, indeed, is almost pure carbon. Its chemical symbol is C is generally crowned with its atomic number of 6, meaning that there are six protons in its nucleus. Its two stable isotopes are 12C, which constitutes 98.9% of all carbon found in nature, and 13C, which accounts for the other 1.1%. The mass of the 12C atom is the basis for the atomic mass unit (amu), by which mass figures for all other elements are measured: the amu is defined as exactly 1/12 the mass of a single 12C atom. The difference in mass between 12C and 13C, which is heavier because of its extra neutron, account for the fact that the atomic mass of carbon is 12.01 amu: were it not for the small quantities of 13C present in a sample of carbon, the mass would be exactly 12.00 amu.

Carbon makes up only a small portion of the known elemental mass in Earth’s crust, oceans, and atmosphere (just 0.08%, or 1/1250 of the whole) yet it is the fourteenth most abundant element on the planet. In the human body, carbon is second only to oxygen in abundance, and accounts for 18% of the body’s mass. Thus if a person weighs 100 lb (45.3 kg), he/she is carrying around 18 lb (8.2 kg) of carbon, interestingly the same material from which the cherished and much valued diamonds are made. Present in the inorganic rocks of the ground and in the living creatures above it, carbon is everywhere. Combined with other elements, it forms carbonates, most notably calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which appears in the form of limestone, marble, and chalk. In combination with hydrogen, it creates hydrocarbons, present in deposits of fossil fuels: natural gas, petroleum, and coal. In the environment, carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2), is taken in by plants, which undergo the process of photosynthesis and release oxygen for sustenance of animals that breathe in oxygen and release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

We know that carbon forms tetravalent bonds, and makes multiple bonds with a single atom. In addition, we have mentioned the fact that carbon forms long chains of atoms and varieties of shapes. But how does it do these things, and why? These are so good questions that an entire branch of chemistry, organic chemistry, is devoted to answering these theoretical questions, as well as to determining solutions to a host of other, more related and practical problems. Organic chemistry is the study of carbon, its compounds, and their properties. At one time, chemists thought that “organics” were synonymous with “living,” and even as recently as the early nineteenth century, they believed that organic substances contained a supernatural “life force.” Then, in 1828, German chemist Friedrich Wöhler cracked the code that distinguished the living from the nonliving species, and the organic from the inorganic.

Wöhler took a sample of ammonium cyanate (NH4OCN), and by heating it, converted it into urea (H2N-CO-NH2), a waste product in the urine of mammals. In other words, he had turned an inorganic material into an organic one, and he did so, as he observed, “without benefit of a kidney, a bladder, or a dog.” It was almost as though he had created life. In fact, what Wöhler had glimpsed—and what other scientists who followed came to understand, was this: ‘what separates the organic from the inorganic is the manner in which the carbon chains are arranged’.

Ammonium cyanate and urea have exactly the same numbers and proportions of atoms, yet they are different compounds. They are thus isomers: substances which have the same formula, but are different chemically. In urea, the carbon forms an organic chain, and in ammonium cyanate, it does not. Thus, to reduce the specifics of organic chemistry even further, it can be said that this area of the field constitutes the study of carbon chains, and ways to rearrange them in order to create new substances.

Rubber, vitamins, cloth, and paper are all organically based compounds we encounter in our daily lives. In each case, the material comes from something that once was living, but what truly make these substances organic in nature is the common denominator of carbon, as well as the specific arrangements of the atoms. We have organic chemistry to thank for any number of things: aspirins and all manner of other drugs; preservatives that keep food from spoiling; perfumes and toiletries; dyes and flavorings, and so on.

It may not be out of context to mention that radiocarbon dating is used to date the age of charcoal, wood, and other biological materials as when an organism is alive, it incorporates a certain ratio of carbon-12 in proportion to the amount of the radioisotope (that is, radioactive isotope) carbon-14 that it receives from the atmosphere. As soon as the organism dies, however, it stops incorporating new carbon, and the ratio between carbon-12 and carbon-14 will begin to change as the carbon-14 decays to form nitrogen-14. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 years, meaning that it takes that long for half the isotopes in a sample to decay to nitrogen-14. Therefore a scientist can use the ratios of carbon-12, carbon-14, and nitrogen-14 to guess the age of an organic sample. The problem with radiocarbon dating, however, is that there is a good likelihood the sample can become contaminated by additional carbon from the soil. Furthermore, it cannot be said with certainty that the ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-14 in the atmosphere has been constant throughout time.





By: Dr.Badruddin Khan

Acidic and alkaline body chemistry refer to the pH, or potential hydrogen, balance within the body. If we have the optimal acid/alkaline balance, we have blood chemistry balance, or homeostasis.

This subject can be confusing, but it is an important one to try to understand, so I will do my best to explain it to you in a way that can be easily understood.

Have you ever wondered why certain environments attract different things? A field of flowers attracts beautiful butterflies and bees, while a swamp attracts mosquitoes and other insects. Well that is because one environment is alkaline, while the latter is acidic.

Science has found that organisms that carry disease, such as mosquitos, prefer an acidic environment. It is easiest to think of it this way: acidic attracts disease, while alkaline protects health.

Our body acidity or alkalinity predicts our environment. Just like a swamp or a field of fressh flowers it can either harbor disease or flourish. Although it is debatable, many experts believe that disease cannot live in an alkaline environment, yet it thrives and grows in an acidic environment.

Again, it is debatable, but I do believe that your body functions best when it is in an alkaline state because until two years ago, I was someone who used to be out of shape and overweight. I was not following a healthy natural diet and I was not exercising. I felt awful and got sick all the time.

I got the flu or the common cold six to ten times a year. I was depressed and had little to no energy. Since discovering the difference between alkaline and acid body chemistry I have made an active effort to make my body healthier and more alkaline.

Since then I rarely have gotten sick, I have more energy, and have had more tolerance to exercise. Most importantly I have been able to maintain the proper body weight, which is something I have always battled with.

Well how did I get my body more alkaline? I ate more organic fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. I made sure that I cut down on the acidic influences in my diet: red meat, dairy products, pasta sauce, coffee, alcohol, processed foods (fast food), deep fried foods, and chemical pollutants (pesticides, hormones etc.).

If you would like to find out your body’s acid/alkaline chemistry go to your local health food store. They should have pH test strips you can buy that test your saliva. They are cheap, easy, accurate, and the roles of the strips allow you to test yourself many times. I test myself once a month or so.

If your body is acidic and you would like to try to make it more alkaline to see if you notice a difference in your overall health, you should maintain a dietary ratio of 75% alkaline to 25% acidic, this is what worked for me. Also exercise, or sweat a lot, this is your body’s natural way of getting rid of toxic chemicals and pollutants that can make your body acidic.

It should also be noted that one way the body naturally protects against really high acidic levels is by using calcium as a natural buffer. If your body is highly acidic and you are not getting enough calcium through your diet or supplements your body will naturally pull calcium from your teeth, bones, to buffer the acidity. This is not good because it can make your bones and teeth brittle.

Some people’s bodies are naturally more acidic or alkaline than others. You may or may not be able to get away with eating more acidic foods than other people. Always remember that everybody is different and you need to be as educated as you can on YOUR body and what makes YOU feel good and healthy.

Pay attention to how often you get sick in relation to certain foods, or toxins you are putting into your body. Make an active effort to test yourself and put good healthy food and supplements into your body, you will feel healthier.





By: Brue Baker

Ever since its inception, Organic gardening has taken the world of planting and cultivation by storm. Organic gardening works on the natural principles and is aimed at reducing the usage of harmful chemicals and pesticides, replacing them with highly nutritional, synthetic fertilizers. This revolutionary method of gardening encourages better understanding of nature and channeling its true values in better forms of cultivation. As it helps maintaining the biological balance by discouraging the use of chemicals, it obtains the resulting benefits from the environment as well, in the form of favorable climate changes.

The essential chemistry behind the development of the plants is as follows. Water and mineral supplies are absorbed by the roots of the plants that further pass them onto the leaves and stems, thus facilitating the photosynthesis process. By way of photosynthesis, the sunlight energy and the water content in plants are used to convert the carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. The produced carbohydrates remain stored in the plants branches and stems, enabling its further growth. Such carbohydrates are also utilized to heal the plant in case of a broken stem or during an insect attack and are also responsible for generation of fresh leaves and stems.

Earth is a natural source of all types of organic substances. Several soil enriching bacteria, fungi and earthworms breed under the ground and effectively break down dead stems and leaves, thus producing a soil benefiting substance called humus. Various such organisms breeding inside Humus are very effective in helping plants with the absorption of essential minerals. The plants roots also release substances that lure the beneficial bacteria and other kinds of organisms that keep harmful fungi at bay. Another useful method to enrich the soil is by way of adding compost to it on a yearly basis. Such compost can be produced in an organic fashion in your own backyard with the kitchen and garden garbage.

The logic behind organic gardening states that harmful insects only attack the plants that are weak. Thus, if the plants are made stronger than ever by adding natural beneficial elements, there will be zero possibility of a pathogenic attack. It is not a hidden fact that the common fertilizers and chemicals besides killing harmful insects, also destroy the good organisms in the soil. This results in further weakening of the plants making them vulnerable to another possible attack.

It is widely known that over zealous gardeners often indulge in excessive pruning of the plants. Doing so, they disturb the natural balance of the plants by reducing the carbohydrate content considerably. This results in weakening of the plants due to high vulnerability to insect attack by way of hybridization. Weeding the plants regularly is a common habit of all the gardeners. However, one must be aware that nettles give invitation to ladybirds and thistle benefit many plant-loving insects.

A garden blooming with organic plants is a sight to behold. Organic gardening is the most natural way to grow beneficial plants and breed beneficial organisms for the further growth of your garden.





By: Abhishek Agarwal

It’s no surprise that organic food is your best bet for health and longevity. Do you remember as a child driving past a farm and actually seeing cows? I do. Our kids just don’t see that, or at least, it’s not the norm anymore. My point is that if you saw how these cows and chickens are being raised, you would NOT choose to eat them, at least as much as possible. They are placed in very tight quarters, they barely see sunlight, and many times they get sick, their feathers are falling off, and then they are injected with antibiotics to kill any infection they may have, and then they are shot with growth hormones to beef them up so they can be sold cheaply. This may be the reason our sons and daughters look so mature these days at such a young age. We are taking in antibiotics and growth hormones each time we eat these inorganic meats. I realize that many times if we eat out, we don’t have access to organic foods. We have to do the best we can with what we have.

It’s best to eat grass fed meats and free-range or organic chicken. My suggestion would be that if you must consume inorganic meats, that you take a Probiotic supplement every day, such as “Primal Defense” by Garden of Life.

The second reason to go organic is because organically grown food may contain more health-promoting, cancer-fighting nutrients than conventionally grown foods, according to a recent study published in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.

As a side benefit, when you increase your use of organic foods, you’ll naturally take in less preservatives, artificial colors and flavors.

So make the switch to organic meats, eggs, fruits and vegetables as much as possible. Also be sure to use a good Veggie Wash and wash your food thoroughly.

You will taste the difference and you’ll feel better just knowing you are doing something good for yourself!





By: Lisa Buldo

uction In the aerobic environment, the most dangerous by product are the species of reactive oxygen. The role of antioxidants is to detoxify reactive oxygen intermediates (ROI) in the body. Over the past several years, nutritional antioxidants have attracted considerable interest in the popular press as potential treatment for a wide variety of disease states, including cancer and other causes e.g. cancer, chronic inflammatory diseases and aging (Delany L. 1993).

Naturally occurring inhibitors of oxidation in food generally originate from plant-based materials. The active components, namely phenolics and polyphenolics, including tocopherols, are secondary plant metabolites and are first derived from phenylalanine and in certain cases and in some plants from tyrosine. The resultant phenylpropanoids may then undergo further transformation to yield benzoic acid derivatives as well as flavonoids, isoflavons, and other complex polyphenols. Thus, natural food phenolics are present as a complex mixture of compounds that provide a cocktail of many active components present in the free, esterified, glycosylated and bound forms (Shahidi and Naczk, 1995). The potency of preparations is therefore dictated by their chemical structures and governed by the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) of the participating molecules in a concentration- and system-dependent manner. Thus, the mode of action of natural antioxidants may involve multiple mechanisms, depending on the source material and possible presence of synergists and antagonists.

*Correspondence to: wasim04101981@yahoo.co.in  

 

 

 

In order to use any antioxidant preparation in food, it must be safe, easy to incorporate, effective at low concentrations, with no undesirable odour, flavour or colour, heat stable, nonvolatile and with good carry through properties and cost-effective. In addition, presence and possible effects of antagonists must be carefully considered, as an antioxidant may become a prooxidant in the presence of certain other molecules. As an example, chlorophylls may overwhelm the antioxidant effect of phenolics due to photosensitized oxidation and transition metal ions such as those of iron and copper may render conditions that favour oxidation. Synergism among different phenolic antioxidants and between phenolics and non-phenolics should be considered in all application areas.

Definition

Free radicals are atoms or groups of atoms with an odd (unpaired) number of electrons and can be formed when oxygen interacts with certain molecules. Once formed these highly reactive radicals can start a chain reaction. Their chief danger comes from the damage they can do when they react with important cellular components such as DNA, or the cell membrane. Cells may function poorly or die if this occurs. To prevent free radical the body has a defence system of antioxidants.  

An antioxidant is a substance that when present in low concentrations relative to the oxidizable substrate significantly delays or reduces oxidation of the substrate (Halliwell, 1995).

Antioxidants get their name because they combat oxidation. They are substances that protect other chemicals of the body from damaging oxidation reactions by reacting with free radicals and other reactive oxygen species within the body, hence hindering the process of oxidation. During this reaction the antioxidant sacrifices itself by becoming oxidized. However, antioxidant supply is not unlimited as one antioxidant molecule can only react with a single free radical. Therefore, there is a constant need to replenish antioxidant resources, whether endogenously or through supplementation.

2. Review of Literature

    Qin Yan Zhu et. al.(2001) studied antioxidant property of oolong tree. Inhibitory effect on FeCl2/ H2O2 – induced damage and the inhibitory effect on erythrocyte hemolysis of an oolonge tea extract (OTE) were evaluated. The OTE was found to have strong  antioxidant activity in all model system. When OTE was separated into fractions according to molecular weight it was found that fraction with higher amount of phenolic compound (with low molecular weight) have strong antioxidative activity.

   Yi Fang Chu and Xianzona Wu (2002) reported that increased consumption of fruits and vegetables containing high levels of phytochemicals have been recommended to prevent chronic diseases related to oxidative stress in human body. 10 common vegetables were selected. The study showed that Red peeper had highest total antioxidant activity followed by Broccoli, Carrot, Spinach, Cabbage, Onion, Potato etc.

   Jie Sun and Yi Fang (2002) reported that consumption of fruit & vegetable associated with reduced risk to Chronic disease due to present of antioxidant. According to them vitamin C is the major antioxidant in fruit.

   Jeong- Chae Lee (2002) assessed an ethanol extract of stem of opuntia to determine the mechanism of its antioxidant activities. The ethanol extract exhibited a concentration dependent inhibition of linoleic acid oxidation.

   Keni Chi Ya na Gimoto et. al. (2002) investigated the antioxidant activity of column chromatographic fractions obtained from brewed coffee to find antioxidant and to assess benefits of coffee drinking. Coffee contain many antioxidant and consumption of antioxidant  rich brewed coffee may inhibit disease caused by oxidative damage.

   Anaberta Cardadose et.al. (2003) showed that fraction extracted with ethyl acetate have antioxidant activity with potent free radical scavenging activity.

   Joon Hee Lee et. al. (2003) reported that Muscadine Grapes and its winary bi product have antioxidant capacity.

   Kizhiyedathu et. al. (2003) reported that extract obtained from sesame cake and oil have free radical scavenging capacity i.e. antioxidant property. 

   K.S. Shivashankara and Seiichiro Isobe (2004) reported that if greenhouse- grown tree ripe ( TR) and mature green ( MG) mangoes (cv. Irwin) were exposed to high electric field treatment before 20 and 30 days of storage at 5O C. MG fruits were allowed to ripen at room temperature after low- temperature storage and antioxidant capacity were estimated before and after the storage period. Antioxidant capacity of fruits remained unchanged up to 20 days of storage period and decreased thereafter.  Antioxidant capacity of fruits was significantly correlated only to ascorbic acids.    

   Joseph O. Kuti et.al. (2004) reported that total phenolics and antioxidant capacity were higher in raw that in cooked leaf extracts. Cooking reduced antioxidant activity. The results of their study indicate that tree spinach leaves are a rich source of natural antioxidants.

   Mahinda Wella singh and Kirk Parkin (2004) studied a broad range of antioxidant activities in crude extract of beet root tissues. Betalain pigment have been shown to posses various antioxidant function. 

 

 

 

 

3. Classification of  antioxidants Table 1. Classification of antioxidants based on their  roles

Enzymes

Antioxidant

Role

Remarks

Superoxide dismutase (SOD)

Mitochondrial

Cytoplasmic

Extracellular

Dismutates O2· to H2O2

 

Contains Manganese (Mn.SOD)

Contains Copper & Zinc (CuZnSOD)

Contains Copper (CuSOD)

 

Catalase

Dismutates H2O2 to H2O

Tetrameric hemoprotein present in peroxisomes

 

Glutathione peroxidase (GSH.Px)

Removes H2O2 and lipid peroxides

Selenoproteins (contains Se2+)

Primarily in the cytosol also mitochondria

Uses GSH

 

Vitamins

Alpha tocopherol

Breaks lipid peroxidation

Lipid peroxide and O2· and ·OH scavenger

Fat soluble vitamin

Beta carotene

Scavenges ·OH, O2·and peroxy radicals

Prevents oxidation of vitamin A

Binds to transition metals

 

Fat soluble vitamin

Ascorbic acid

Directly scavenges O2·, ·OH, and H2O2

Neutralizes oxidants from stimulated neutrophils

Contributes to regeneration of vitamin E

 

Water soluble vitamin

 

Table 2.Classification Of antioxidants based on their sources

Source Material

Example

Antioxidant

Vegetable Oils

 

Soybean oil

Tocopherols

Tropical Oils

 

Palm oil

Tocotrienols

Plant Oils

 

Palm oil

Carotenoids

Herbs and Spices

 

Rosemary and Sage

Complex phenolics

Cereals

 

Wheat and buckwheat

Flavenoids

Legumes

 

Soybean

Isoflavones

Oil Seeds

Canola and Mustard

Phenolic acids & Phenylpropanoids

Teas

Green Tea

Catechins and Polyphenols

Fruit skin and seeds

Grape seed and skin

Polyphenols and Tannins

  4. Antioxidant chemistry of some vitamins              4.1 Alpha tocopherol (vitamin E)                   Vitamin E -2D structure - C26H44O2 4.1.1  Nomenclature It is the major lipid soluble antioxidant found in cells. The name originated in the early 1920s when vegetable oil was discovered to restore fertility in rats. This unknown substance was designated vitamin E by Sure in 1924.The term tocopherol was first used by Evans. Because this compound permitted an animal to have offspring, he named it tocopherol from the Greek word tokos, meaning childbirth, and added the verb phero, meaning to bring forth. To indicate the alcohol nature of the molecule, ol was added to the ending.

Vitamin E is a generic term that includes all entities that exhibit the biological activity of natural vitamin E, d-alpha-tocopherol. In nature, eight substances have been found to have vitamin E activity: d-alpha-, d-beta-, d-gamma- and d-delta-tocopherol (which differ in methylation site and side-chain saturation (Kellof et al. 1996); and d-alpha-, d-beta-, d-gamma- and d-delta-tocotrienol. Also, the acetate and succinate derivatives of the natural tocopherols have vitamin E activity, as do synthetic tocopherols and their acetate and succinate derivatives.

Of all these, d-alpha-tocopherol has the highest biopotency, and its activity is the standard against which all the others must be compared. It is the predominant isomer in plasma.

4.1.2 Source and Nature

Vitamin E is an essential nutrient that functions as an antioxidant in the human body. It is essential, by definition, because the body cannot manufacture its own vitamin E and thus it must be provided by foods and supplements.

Tocopherols are present in oils, nuts, seeds, wheat germ and grains. Absorption is believed to be associated with intestinal fat absorption. Approximately 40% of the ingested tocopherol is absorbed. Most tocopherols enter the blood via lymph where they are associated with chylomicrons. Vitamin E was shown to be stored in adipose tissue. Phospholipids of the mitochondria & endoplasmic reticulum & plasma membranes possess affinities for alpha tocopherol & the vitamin tends to concentrate in these sites.

4.1.3 Mechanisms of Action

Vitamin E is more appropriately described as an antioxidant than a vitamin. This is because, unlike most vitamins, it does not act as a co-factor for enzymatic reactions.

Also, deficiency of vitamin E does not produce a disease with rapidly developing symptoms such as scurvy or beriberi. Overt symptoms due to vitamin E deficiency occur only in cases involving fat mal absorption syndromes, premature infants and patients on total parenteral nutrition. The effects of inadequate vitamin E intake usually develop over a long time, typically decades, and have been linked to chronic diseases such as cancer and atherosclerosis.

Hence, its main function is to prevent the peroxidation of membrane phospholipids, and avoids cell membrane damage through its antioxidant action. The lipophilic character of tocopherol enables it to locate in the interior of the cell membrane bilayers (Halliway and Getteridge, 1992; Borg, 1993). Tocopherol-OH can transfer a hydrogen atom with a single electron to a free radical, thus removing the radical before it can interact with cell membrane proteins or generate lipid peroxidation. When tocopherol-OH combines with the free radical, it becomes tocopherol-O·, itself a radical. When ascorbic acid is available, tocopherol-O· plus ascorbate (with its available hydrogen) yields semidehydroascorbate (a weak radical) plus tocopherol-OH (Halliway and Gutteridge, 1992). By this process, an aggressive ROI(Reactive Oxygen Intermediate) is eliminated and a weak ROI (dehydroascorbate) is formed, and tocopherol-OH is regenerated. Despite this complex defence system, there are no known endogenous enzymatic antioxidant systems for the hydroxyl radical.

Vitamin E also stimulates the immune response. Some studies have shown lower incidence of infections when vitamin E levels are high, and vitamin E may inhibit cancer initiation through enhanced immunocompetence.

Vitamin E also has a direct chemical function. It inhibits the conversion of nitrites in smoked, pickled and cured foods to nitrosamines in the stomach. Nitrosamines are strong tumour promoters.

Alpha-tocopherol has been shown to be capable of reducing ferric iron to ferrous iron (i.e. to act as a pro-oxidant). Moreover, the ability of alpha-tocopherol to act as a pro-oxidant (reducing agent) or antioxidant depends on whether all of the alpha-tocopherol becomes consumed in the conversion from ferric to ferrous iron or whether, following this interaction, residual alpha-tocopherol is available to scavenge the resultant ROI (Yamamoto and Nike, 1988).

4.1.4 Possible therapeutic effects

Ø Vitamin E decreases the incidence of ischaemic heart disease (Gey et al. 1991).

Ø Decreases the incidence of cataract (Packer, 1991; 1992).

Ø Decreases the incidence of osteoarthritis (Blankenhorn, 1986).

Ø Decreases the incidence of rheumatoid arthritis (Kheir El-dein et al. 1992).

4.2 Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)                      Vitamin C -2D structure C6H8O6 4.2.1 Source and Nature

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is a water-soluble, antioxidant present in citrus fruits, potatoes, tomatoes and green leafy vegetables.

Humans are unable to synthesize l-ascorbic acid from d-glucose due to absence of the enzyme L-gulacolactone oxidase (Ensimnger et al.1995). Hence, humans must therefore obtain ascorbic acid from dietary sources.

4.2.2 Mechanism of Action

The chemopreventive action of vitamin C is attributed to two of its functions. It is a water-soluble chain breaking antioxidant (Ishwarial et at 1991). As an antioxidant, it scavenges free radicals and reactive oxygen molecules, which are produced during metabolic pathways of detoxification. It also prevents formation of carcinogens from precursor compounds (Block and Menkes, 1988). The structure of ascorbic acid is reminiscent of glucose, from which it is derived in the majority of mammals.

One important property is its ability to act as a reducing agent (electron donor). Ascorbic acid is a reducing agent with a hydrogen potential of +O.08V, making it capable of reducing such compounds as a molecular oxygen, nitrate and cytochromes a and c. Donation of one electron by ascorbate gives the semi-dehydroascorbate radical (DHA). Ascorbate reacts rapidly with O2·⁻and even more rapidly with ·OH to give DHA. DHA, itself can act as a source of vitamin C.

 

Ascorbic acid     +     2O2· +     2H      ®             H2O2              +            DHA

It has also been shown that ascorbate is more potent than a-tocopherol in inhibiting the oxidation of LDL  (Low Density Lipoprotein)  in a cell free system (Jialal et at 1990). Co-incubation of LDL with ascorbate during similar oxidative condition inhibited LDL oxidation and resulted in preservation of the endogenous antioxidant in the LDL particle (Ishwarial et at, 1991). The concentration of ascorbate used to inhibit LDL oxidation (40-60 mm) is well within the normal plasma range (23-85 pm).

Vitamin C also contributes to the regeneration of membrane bound oxidized vitamin E. It will react with the a -tocopheroxyl radical, resulting in the generation of tocopherol in this process itself being oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid (Ward & Peters 1995). Vitamin C supplementation in animals leads to increased plasma and tissue levels of vitamin E.

In vitro studies suggest that the antioxidant properties of ascorbic acid may not increase linearly as ascorbic acid concentrations rise (Frei et al. 1989). Moreover, ascorbic acid alone can act as a “pro-oxidant” or reducing agent to react with copper or iron salts. Ferric iron (Fe3+) formed by the reaction, Fe2+ + H2O2 ® HO + ·OH + Fe3+, is converted by ascorbic acid to ferrous (Fe2+) ion. Ferrous iron is therefore recycled to promote the conversion of more H2O2 to ·OH (Halliway et al. 1992).

4.3 Beta Carotene

Me

2-D Structure of Beta Carotene 4.3.1 Source and Nature

Carotenoids are pigmented micronutrients present in fruits and vegetables.

Carotenoids are precursors of vitamin A and have antioxidant effects. While over 600 carotenoids have been found in the food supply, the most common forms are alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, lycopene, crocetin, canthaxanthin, and fucoxanthin. Beta-carotene is the most widely studied. It is composed of two molecules of vitamin A (retinol) joined together. Dietary beta-carotene is converted to retinol at the level of the intestinal mucosa.

4.3.2 Mechanisms of Action

The antioxidant function of beta-carotene is due to its ability to quench singlet oxygen, scavenge free radicals and protect the cell membrane lipids from the harmful effects of oxidative degradation (Krinsky and Deneke, 1982; Santamaria et al. 1991). The quenching involves a physical reaction in which the energy of the excited oxygen is transferred to the carotenoid, forming an excited state molecule (Krinsky, 1993). Quenching of singlet oxygen is the basis for beta-carotene’s well known therapeutic efficacy in erythropoietic protoporphyria (a photosensitivity disorder) (Matthews-Roth, 1993). The ability of beta-carotene and other carotenoids to quench excited oxygen, however, is limited, because the carotenoid itself can be oxidized during the process (autoxidation). Burton and Ingold (Burton and Ingold, 1984) and others have shown that beta-carotene autoxidation in vitro is dose-dependent and dependent upon oxygen concentrations. At higher concentrations, it may function as a pro-oxidant and can activate proteases.

In addition to singlet oxygen, carotenoids are also thought to quench other oxygen free radicals. It is also suggested that beta carotene might react directly with the peroxyl radical at low oxygen tensions; this may provide some synergism to vitamin E which reacts with peroxyl radicals at higher oxygen tensions (Cotgreave et al. 1988).

Carotenoids also have been reported to have a number of other biologic actions, including immuno-enhancement; inhibition of mutagenesis and transformation; and regression of premalignant lesions

          5. Antioxidant chemistry of some enzymes

This includes superoxide dismutase, catalase, and peroxidases.

 5.1 Superoxide dismutase (SOD) 5.1.1 Source and Nature

SOD is an endogenously produced intracellular enzyme present in essentially every cell in the body.Cellular SOD is actually represented by a group of metalloenzymes with various prosthetic groups.The prevalent enzyme is cupro-zinc (CuZn) SOD, which is a stable dimeric protein (32,000 D). SOD appears in three forms: (1) Cu-Zn SOD in the cytoplasm with two subunits, and (2) Mn-SOD in the mitochondrion (Mayes, 1993; Warner, 1994). A third extracellular SOD recently has been described contains Copper (CuSOD).

 

                             2O2·      +   2H  +   SOD    ®      H2O2     +      O2

5.1.2 Mechanism of action

SOD is considered fundamental in the process of eliminating ROI by reducing (adding an electron to) superoxide to form H2O2. Catalase and the selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase are responsible for reducing H2O2      to   H2O.

The respective enzymes that interact with superoxide and H2O2 are tightly regulated through a feedback system. Excessive superoxide inhibits glutathione peroxidase and catalase to modulate the equation from H2O2 to H2O (see Fig.5). Likewise, increased H2O2 slowly inactivates CuZn-SOD. Meanwhile, catalases and glutathione peroxidase, by reducing H2O2, conserve SOD; and SOD, by reducing superoxide, conserves catalases and glutathione peroxidase. Through this feedback system, steady low levels of SOD, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase, as well as superoxide and H2O2 are maintained, which keeps the entire system in a fully functioning state (Fridovich, 1993).

SOD also exhibits antioxidant activity by reducing O2·⁻ that would otherwise lead to the reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+ and thereby promote ·OH formation. When the catalase activity is insufficient to metabolize the H2O2 produced SOD will increase the tissue oxidant activity. Hence, it was found that the antioxidant enzymes function as a tightly balanced system, any disruption of this system would lead to promotion of oxidation .

5.2 The catalase enzyme

This enzyme is a protein enzyme present in most aerobic cells in animal tissues. Catalase is present in all body organs being especially concentrated in the liver & erythrocytes.  The brain, heart, skeletal muscle contains only low amounts.

Catalase and glutathione peroxidase seek out hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water and diatomic oxygen. An increase in the production of SOD without a subsequent elevation of catalase or glutathione peroxidase leads to the accumulation of hydrogen peroxide, which gets converted into the hydroxyl radical. Indeed research in the pathogenesis of Down’s syndrome has revealed that the existence of trisomy 21 leads to the overproduction of SOD, the gene for which is located also on chromosome 21. This finding is intriguing in that it reveals the possibility of a genetic link to the increased activity of free radicals. (Krinsky, 1992)

                               2 H2O2 ® 2 H2O + O2          

5.3 Glutathione peroxidase enzyme

The glutathione redox cycle is a central mechanism for reduction of intracellular hydroperoxides.

5.3.1 Source and Nature

It is a tetrameric protein 85,000-D. it has 4 atoms of selenium (Se) bound as seleno-cysteine moieties that confers the catalytic activity. One of the essential requirements is glutathione as a cosubstrate.

Glutathione peroxidase reduces H2O2 to H2O by oxidizing glutathione (GSH) (Equation A). Rereduction of the oxidized form of glutathione (GSSG) is then catalysed by glutathione reductase (Equation B). These enzymes also require trace metal cofactors for maximal efficiency, including selenium for glutathione peroxidase; copper, zinc, or manganese for SOD; and iron for catalase (Halliwell, 1995).

H2O2 + 2 GSH ® GSSG + 2 H2O (equation A)

GSSG + NADPH + H+ ® 2 GSH + NADP+ (equation B)

 

6. Mode of action of antioxidants

There are four routes:

1.Chain breaking reactions, e.g. alpha-tocopherol which acts in lipid phase to trap “ROD” radical.

2.Reducing the concentration of reactive oxygen species e.g. glutathione.

3.Scavenging initiating radicals e.g. superoxide dismutase which acts in aqueous phase to trap superoxide free radicals.

4.Chelating the transition metal catalysts: A group of compounds serves an antioxidant function by sequestration of transition metals that are well-established pro-oxidants. In this way, transferrin, lactoferrin, and ferritin function to keep iron induced oxidant stress in check and ceruloplasmin and albumin as copper sequestrants.

7. Antioxidant System in our body

The body has developed several endogenous antioxidant systems to deal with the production of ROI. These systems can be divided into enzymatic and nonenzymatic groups.

The enzymatic antioxidants include superoxide dismutase (SOD), which catalyses the conversion of O2·⁻ to H2O2 and H2O; catalase, which then converts H2O2 to H2O and O2; and glutathione peroxidase, which reduces H2O2 to H2O.

The nonenzymatic antioxidants include the lipid-soluble vitamins, vitamin E and vitamin A or provitamin A (beta-carotene), and the water-soluble vitamin C and GSH. Vitamin E has been described as the major chain-breaking antioxidant in humans (Packer, 1992). Because of its lipid solubility, vitamin E is located within cell membranes, where it interrupts lipid peroxidation and may play a role in modulating intracellular signalling pathways that rely on ROI (Kagan et al. 1990; Azzi et al. 1993). Vitamin E can also directly quench ROI, including O2·, ·OH, and (Algayer et al. 1992) O2.

8. Commercial Sources of Natural Antioxidants

The most common natural antioxidant preparations in the market are mixed tocopherols, which are by-products of vegetable oil refining. In addition, spices or their oleoresins and extracts, such as those of rosemary and sage, green tea extracts, other plant-based mixtures, such as those of mustard and certain unsaponifiables of edible oils, and, of course, carotenoids are also important (Table 2) ( Ho et al., 1994; Shahidi, 1997).

9. Efficacy of anti oxidants in different systems

The chemical composition and structures of active extract components are important factors governing the efficacy of natural antioxidants in different foods. Thus, phenolic compounds with ortho- and para- dihydroxylation or a hydroxy and a methoxy group are more effective than simple phenolics. In addition, phenylpropanoids with extended conjugation are more effective than benzoic acid derivatives. Furthermore, hydrophilicity and lipophilicity of the active components is dictated by the appropriateness of antioxidants in systems. In general, more hydrophilic antioxidants are better in stabilizing bulk oil than oil-in-water emulsions while the activity of lipophilic antioxidants follows the opposite trend. There are also many other factors that must be taken into account when considering and selecting antioxidants and extracts for food application. Specifically, attention should be paid to the photosensitizing effect of chlorophylls in natural extracts. In addition, the level of incorporation of antioxidants in foods should be optimized and the use of chelating agents considered, when and where appropriate. Many antioxidants behave prooxidatively at high concentrations or when present together with ions of transition metals; such effects are also important when considering the in-vivo activity of antioxidants ( Shahidi and Ho, 2000). Some chelators, such as polyphosphates, in addition to metal sequestration, may also exert other beneficial effects such as to improve the cooking yield and juiciness of meat and poultry products or keeping quality of fresh seafoods. The role of natural antioxidants in foods is expected to rise over the years to come.

10. Summary

Antioxidant are molecules that can safely interact with the free radicals and terminate the chain reactions before the vital molecules are damaged.Although there are several enzyme system and vitamins that scavenges free radicals the principle antioxidant in the body are Vitamin E, Vitamin C,beta carotene, catalase enzyme, super oxide dismutase enzyme,glutathion peroxidase enzyme etc.Vitamin E ,a lipid soluble antioxidant prevent peroxidation of phospholipid.Vitamin C is a water soluble chain breaking antioxidant. Beta carotene  protect cell membrane lipid from harmful effect of antioxidant damage.Catalase ,glutathion peroxidase ,super oxide dismutase  etc. enzyme systems also prevent our body oxidative damage by free radicals.

11. Conclusion

Antioxidant plays an important role to prevent cancer,and other disease.They also have role in slowing ageing process and preventing heart disease.So antioxidant are very much necessary for our body .But our body can’t manufacture these chemicals ,so they must be supplied through diet.Although  there is a little doubt that antioxidant are necessary component for good health , no one knows if supplements should be taken or not and if so how much is optimum.Though antioxidant supplement were thought to be harmless but as we are becoming more aware of this chemicals we come to know that antioxidant may be harmful for our body in some cases.In normal concentration vitamin C and beta carotene are antioxidant but at higher concentration they are pro oxidant and thus harmful .Also very little is known about the long term  consequences of megadoses of antioxidant .the body’s finely tuned mechanism are carefully balanced to withstand a variety of insults.Taking chemicals without understanding of all their effect may disrupt this balance. So we should follow the following recommendations. 

1.  It will be helpful for us to follow a balanced training program that emphasizes regular exercise and to eat 5 servings of fruit or vegetables per day. This will ensure that we are developing our inherent antioxidant systems and that our diet is providing the necessary components.

2.  Weekend warriors should strongly consider a more balanced approach to exercise. Failing that, consider supplementation.

3.  For extremely demanding races (such as an ultra distance event ), or when adapting to high altitude, it will be helpful to take a vitamin E supplement @ 100 to 200 IU per day for several weeks  up to and following the race.

4.  We should look for upcoming FDA recommendations, but we should be wary of advertising and media hype.

     5.  We should not over supplement. 

 

 

12. Future Scope of Research  

Antioxidant are necessary for our health but we do not know the exact dose and the way how to supplement it. So further research are required to know more about antioxidant. There are so many flora and fauna in our environment which may contain antioxidant  chemicals. So there is a huge scope to conduct research work in this interesting topic to know

1)    How much antioxidant supplementation is required.

2)    Natural sources of different antioxidant.

3)    To discover antioxidant property of different chemicals.

4)  To know whether they have any other pharmacological and toxicological effect.      

  Bibliography

Anaberta Cardadose et.al. (2003). Antioxidant Activity In Common Beans. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. pp. 6975-80.

 

Jeong- Chae Lee (2002). Antioxidant Property of An Ethanol Extract of the Stem of Opuntia fiscus. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. pp. 6490-6496.

 

Jie Sun and Yi Fang (2002). Antioxidant and Antiprofilactive Activities of Common Fruits. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. pp. 7449-7454.

 

Joon Hee Lee et. al. (2003). Antioxidant Polyphenolics in Muscadine Grapes Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. pp 480-485.

 

K.S. Shivashankara and Seiichiro Isobe (2004). Fruit Antioxidant Activity of Irwin Mango Fruits Stored at Low Temperature. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. pp. 1281-1286.

 

Kagan et al. 1990; Azzi et al. (1993).

Keni Chi Ya na Gimoto et. al. (2002). Antioxidative Activities of Fractions Obtained From Brewed Coffee. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. pp 1281-1290.

 

Mahinda Wella singh and Kirk Parkin (2002). Phase II Enzyme Inducing Activities of Beet Root From Phenotypes of Different Pigmentation. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. pp. 6704-09.

 

Qin Yan Zhu et. al.(2001). Antioxidant Activities of Oolong Tea. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. pp. 1280-1286.

 

Shahidi and Ho. (2000).Valcic, S; Burr ,J.A. Timmermann BN, Liebler DC. Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA.

 

Yi Fang Chu and Xianzona Wu (2002). Antioxidant and Antiprofilactive Activities of Common Vegetables. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. pp. 381-385.

 





By: Md. Wasim Aktar

We have chemicals in our everyday lives everywhere. Shampoo, toothpaste, many foods, even our clothing all contain or are manufactured with the use of chemicals. Besides polluting the environment, the use of chemicals can be much more threatening. But we’re concentrating on gardening and the use of these chemicals on our food. One of the prominent ways chemicals are used in food production is through chemical fertilizers.

The soil must be regarded as a living organism. An acid fertilizer, because of its acids, dissolves the cementing material, made up of the dead bodies of soil organisms, which holds the rock particles together in the form of soil crumbs. This compact surface layer of rock particles encourages rain water to run off rather than enter the soil.

For example, a highly soluble fertilizer, such as 5-10-5, goes into solution in the soil water rapidly so that much of it may be leached away into our ground water without benefiting the plants at all. This chemical causes the soil to assume a cement-like hardness. When present in large concentrations, they seep into the subsoil where they interact with the clay to form impervious layers of precipitates called hardpan.

Many artificial chemical fertilizers contain acids, as sulfuric and hydrochloric, which will increase the acidity of the soil. Changes in the soil acidity (pH) are accompanied by the changes in the kinds of organisms which can live in the soil. For this reason, the artificial fertilizer people tell their customers to increase the organic matter content of their soil or use lime to offset the effects of these acids.

There are several ways by which artificial fertilizers reduce aeration of soils. Earthworms, whose numerous borings made the soil more porous, are killed.  The acid fertilizers will also destroy the cementing material which bins rock particles together in crumbs. Chemical fertilizers rob plants of some natural immunity by killing off the micro organisms in the soil.

Many plant diseases have already been considerably checked when antibiotic producing bacteria or fungi thrived around the roots. When plants are supplied with much nitrogen and only a medium amount of phosphate, plants will most easily contract mosaic infections. Host resistance is obtained if there is a small amount of nitrogen and a large supply of phosphate. Fungus and bacterial diseases have been related to high nitrogen fertilization, and lack of trace elements.

Plants grown with artificial chemical fertilizers tend to have less nutrient value than organically grown plants. For example, several tests have found that by supplying citrus fruits with a large amount of soluble nitrogen will lower the vitamin C content of oranges. It has also been found, that these fertilizers that provide soluble nitrogen will lower the capacity of corn to produce high protein content. Probably the most regularly observed deficiency in plants treated continually with chemical fertilizers is deficiencies in trace minerals. To explain this principle will mean delving into a little physics and chemistry, but you will then easily see the unbalanced nutrition created in chemical fertilized plants. The colloidal humus particles are the convoys that transfer most of the minerals from the soil solution to the root hairs. Each humus particle is negatively charged and will, attract the positive elements, such as potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, aluminum, boron, iron, copper and other metals. When sodium nitrate is dumped into the soil year after year, in large doses, a radical change takes place on the humus articles. The very numerous sodium ions (atomic particles) will eventually crowd out the other ions, making them practically unavailable for plant use. The humus becomes coated with sodium, glutting the root hairs with the excess. Finally, the plant is unable to pick up the minerals that it really needs. So, with chemical fertilizers, in short, you have short-time results, and long-term damage to the soil, ground water and to our health. Another reason to avoid the use of chemicals and pesticides is that long term use of such chemicals can deplete the soil and leave it unable to sustain further growth. In many cases beds of perennials suddenly stop blooming for no apparent reason, and the culprit is often found to be the overuse of chemical fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides.

Chemicals that are applied to plants can often seep into the water supply thus contaminating it. While it’s true, our drinking water does go through a filtration process, it’s been proven that this process doesn’t remove ALL of the harmful contaminants.

It has also been proven that certain chemicals can cause diseases, birth defects, and other hazardous health problems. All one needs to do is watch the movie “Erin Brokovich” to see what chemical contamination of water can do to a body.

Consumers worry about filthy slaughterhouses, e-coli, salmonella and fecal contamination. The CDC estimates that 76 million American suffer food poisoning every year. There are no documented cases of organic meat, poultry or dairy products setting off a food poisoning outbreak in the United States.

Consumers are also concerned about toxic sewage used as fertilizer on conventional farms. Organic farming prohibits the use of sewage sludge.

They worry about untested and unlabelled genetically engineered food ingredients in common supermarket items. Genetically engineered ingredients are now found in 60 percent to 75 percent of all U.S. foods. Although polls indicate 90 percent of Americans want labels on gene-altered foods, government and industry refuse to label. Organic production forbids genetic engineering.

Eating organic eliminates, or minimizes, the risk from poisoning from heavy metals found in sewage sludge, the unknowns of genetically modified food, the ingestion of hormone residues, and the exposure to mutant bacteria strains. It also reduces the exposure to insecticide and fungicide residues. Residues from potentially carcinogenic pesticides are left behind on some of our favorite fruits and vegetables - in 1998, the FDA found pesticide residues in over 35 percent of the food tested. Many U.S. products have tested as being more toxic than those from other countries. What’s worse is that current standards for pesticides in food do not yet include specific protection for fetuses, infants, or young children despite major changes to federal pesticide laws in 1996 requiring such reforms.

It is certainly in the best interests of the human population to avoid chemicals in our food, but it’s also better for our planet as well. Chemicals can affect the soil making it less fertile. They destroy important parts of the natural eco-system. All plants and animals serve some sort of purpose - even if that purpose isn’t especially obvious. By taking these components out of the natural life cycle, we are endangering our environment in ways we can’t necessarily see outright, but that danger is there.

So it becomes obvious that growing your food naturally is the best way to go. Let’s take a moment and look at what exactly organic gardening is.





By: Jaden Santon

The first thing I need to mention before we start discussing the use of wedding favors is that you should not feel obliged to use them on your wedding day. I mean, you should not feel obliged to do anything you feel it does not suit your wedding or your needs. Some times, people that have a tight budget for organizing their desired wedding need to drop off some of the details in order to afford the whole ceremony and the reception afterwards – what can I say, with wedding favors it is a relief since they are quite affordable for almost any budget.

Giving wedding favors is a elegant and wonderful mean to show your guests the gratitude they deserve for giving you their support on your wedding day. You see, being the married couple is one thing and it has its own percentage of happiness and joy, however, when you see a number of people (some of the close to your heart) being a part of your special day, showing you how happy they are for you – it is an indescribable feeling.

Wedding favors also act as great reminders of your special day – by handing them out to your guests, they will remember your wedding even as time passes. This is the reason many couples have considered wedding favors rather than typical greetings at the wedding reception – it is easier to make people remember that you tied the knot on July 16th, rather than through a simple greeting. Now, if you are wondering which type of wedding favors would suit your wedding best all you have to do is match your wedding theme to the layout of the favors. This if you do not want to consider unique or personalized wedding favors.

Resource Box:

If you are on the lookout for the perfect wedding favors and you have no time to shop around, all you have to do is follow our website at www.newfavors.com. Sarah Mehra has been in the wedding industry since 2000 and started Newfavors.com with intent to provide wedding favors and services at more affordable costs. We assure a wide choice from many manufactures at very competitive prices, not to mention fast turn around for delivery





By: Lisa Nixon

Chemistry is defined as the science of atoms and molecules as it deals with the composition, structure and properties of matter which can be best described and understood in terms of these basic constituents of matter. Chemistry is the science not of the only about one hundred elements but of the infinite variety of molecules and related species that may be built from them.

Our body is made up of tissues, which are all composed of chemicals. We need an adequate supply of chemicals in the form of food, vitamins, hormones, and enzymes, which are all chemicals. For taking care of our health we need medicines. We find that chemicals and chemistry penetrate into every aspect of our lives as essential items of our daily needs such as: Paper, sugar, starch, vegetable oils, ghee, essential oils, tannery, distillery, soap, cosmetics, rubber, dyes, plastics, petroleum etc are all the valuable gifts of chemistry. The materials with which one comes into contact in everyday life are polymers, rubber, plastics, textiles and many of the constituents of living things, such as cellulose and proteins. Infact there is almost nothing that we use in our daily life and it is not a chemical. Hence study of chemistry is important atleast for the simple reason that besides being ourselves an assemblage of chemicals, we use many chemicals in almost all aspects of our daily lives.

The service of chemistry of medicine represents as one of the most fascinating facts of the story of the application of scientific knowledge to the welfare of mankind. These are substances which provide the necessary elements like Nitrogen, Phosphorus Potassium, and Calcium etc. to humans and plants. It is no longer a mystery for the informed farmers that the chief nitrogenous fertilizers are ammonium sulphate and Calcium ammonium Phosphate and. Super phosphates multiply the yield of crops many times.

While we are well posted with the hard fact that Arsenic and many of its compounds are deadly toxic, it is worth mentioning that Arsenic has also been used as a life saver. In the nineteenth century, physicians had no means of combating infection and patients usually had no fate but to die. The whole nature of medicine, however, changed in 1863, when French scientists, Bechamps, noticed that an arsenic compound was toxic to some micro-organisms whose report encouraged Paul Erhlich, a German scientist, to synthesize new arsenic compounds, testing each one for its organism killing ability and finally with his 606th compound of arsenic, Erhlich found a substance in 1909, that selectively killed the syphilis microorganism. At the time, syphilis was a feared and wide spread disease for which there was no cure; only suffering, dementia, and ultimately death were the obvious consequences. Erhlich’s arsenic compound, what he dubbed as a “Magic Bullet” provided miraculous cures, and a search for other chemical compounds that could be used in the treatment of diseases was launched.

In 1935, Gerhard Domagk, administered a dose of a dye called prontosil (that inhibits the growth of streptococci bacteria) to cure his daughter’s fever. This not only laid the foundation for modern chemotherapy but also grabbed a Nobel Prize for medicine for Domagk in 1939. This field, now known as Chemotherapy has produced one of the most effective tools of controlling bacterial infections and those of many other micro-organisms. Chemotherapy also provides one of the lines of attack against cancerous tissues. And it all started with an arsenic compound. In chemotherapy which is as indispensable and desirable now for cancer patients, many of whom have no hopes and options but to count the remaining days of their lives, as Radiation therapy, chemicals or drugs are used to selectively destroy infectious micro-organisms without destroying the live tissues or the host, though both chemotherapy as well as radiation therapy carry harsh side effects too. Ernest Fourneau, a French scientist in 1936 proved that in the human body, prontosil breaks down to give sulphanilamide. Sulphanilamide is the actual active agent that inhibits streptococci. This study led to the discovery of sulpha drugs and from there on growth of chemotherapy has reached amazing heights.

Analgesics such as morphine, codeine and heroin are mainly opium and its products that are effective analgesics but cause addictions too. Moreover their over- dosage can cause sleep and unconsciousness. Tranquillizers which reduce anxiety and tension being either sedatives or antidepressants (mood elevators) are also chemicals. Similarly sterilization, the process of complete elimination of micro-organisms includes chemicals that are known as antiseptics and disinfectants. It is a matter of immense pleasure and great satisfaction that now it has become not only widely known but has also been generally accepted atleast by a sizeable majority of sensible masses that with global population growing less by the days and more by the nights, birth control has become essential. Fortunately, there are drugs that control ovulation and if regularly consumed, function as effective contraceptives.

It has been established that Tension and Mental stress escalate the level of acid in bile juice causing hyperacidity that can be combated using antacids mostly bases like calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide or aluminium hydroxide in the form of tablets or aqueous suspensions. These react with hydrochloric acid in the stomach and neutralize it partially and bring relief to the sufferers from consequences of hyperacidity.

Histamine is naturally present in almost all body tissues and is released when the human body meets substances that cause allergies. For example, when a person is suffering from hay fever, histamine is released. Antihistamines that are used as drugs to control the allergy caused by histamines are nothing more than the chemicals, known as amines. It is worth noting that Alexander Fleming in 1920 found that bacteria do not flourish in nutrient agar surrounded by the fungus Penicillium notatum westling. He found that this fungus produces antibiotic called penicillin. Antibiotics are produced by micro-organisms that are toxic to other micro organisms.

We know that colored substances used for dyeing fabrics are called dyes. A true dye must have a suitable color; be able to attach itself to the material from solution or be capable of being fixed on it, and be fast to light and washing when fixed. For this it must be resistant to water, acid and alkali. Chromophores are unsaturated groups or groups with multiple bonds that impart color to the organic compounds. Examples are the nitro, the nitroso and the azo groups. Auxochromes (salt forming groups like hydroxyl, and amino) do not impart color to the chromogens in the absence of chromophores. However, when the chromogen has a chormophore, the auxochrome deepens the color of the chromogen.

Substantive dyes can be directly applied by immersing the cloth in a hot solution of the dye in water. They can be again classified into acidic and basic dyes. Acid dyes are sodium salts of sulphonic acid and nitro phenols. They are used for dyeing animal fibers (wool and silk) but not vegetable fibers (cotton). The dye solution is acidified with sulphuric or acetic acid. Basic dyes are generally salts of hydrochloric acid and colored bases. They can directly dye animal fibers but need a fixing agent called mordant (tannin) to dye vegetable fibers. These are used for dyeing silk and cotton. Methyl orange, an azodyes, is prepared by coupling diazotized sulphanilic acid with dimethylaniline. Aniline Yellow is another azodye but has little value as a dye because of its sensitivity to acids. This is the simplest basic azo dye and can be obtained by coupling benzene diazomium chloride with aniline. Malachite belongs to the triphenyl methane dyes, prepared by condensing 1 molecule of benzaldehyde with 2 molecules of dimethylaniline in presence of concentrated Sulphuric acid, H2SO4. Dyes can also be classified as natural and synthetic dyes. Compounds extracted from plants are called natural dyes. These were used in olden days to color fabrics. Alizarin (red) and indigo (blue) are two examples. Synthetic dyes came into being to provide more varieties of colors.

It needs no mention that there are many chemicals which find great use in cosmetics too. Creams like cleansing creams, cold creams, bleaching and vanishing creams are prepared synthetically from chemicals. Perfumes, talcum powders and deodorants are also some other cosmetic substances that are obtained from chemicals. Lipsticks, nail polish and hair dyes also are chemical substances. Perfumes have pleasant smell due to the esters used in their synthesis.

We also know that carbon fibers are made of long chains of carbon atoms. They are got from synthetic or regenerated fibers by heating them in the absence of oxygen. These fibers on heating decompose to produce carbon fibers. Besides being useful, chemicals find use in artifacts as well. Ceramics, paints, varnishes, glass, cement and likes are various other useful substances that contain various chemicals as their main components. Construction industry is the major beneficiary of such substances.

A passing reference may be given about the fact that micro alloyed steels that are tougher than higher alloys are intermediate carbon steel alloys with 0.3 to 0.6% carbon content. They also include vanadium, niobium (columbium), and titanium and so on. Their enhanced strength is due to the precipitation-hardening reaction where nitrides or carbonitrides are formed in steel. Therefore, nitrogen level control is a key factor for their strength.

It may not be exaggeration to say that whereas we are used to talk of chemicals in food, in actuality, natural food substances are various forms of chemicals. For example, rice is a carbohydrate. Fruits contain carbohydrates and organic acids like citric, benzoic, malic, and ascorbic acids. Vegetables contain proteins (amino acid blocks) and vitamins. Besides these, chemicals are used as preservatives too for canned or bottled food items. Preservatives are chemicals that are added to food materials to prevent the growth of micro organisms or prevent spoilage and increase their shelf life. Chemicals also find use as edible colors and artificial sweetening agents. Since sugar cannot be used as a sweetening agent for diabetic patients, artificial sweetening agents that are non-nutritive in nature are used as substituents for sugar (especially in soft drinks). Examples are saccharin which is 500 times sweeter than sucrose, and cyclamates. Food colors are used in ice creams, dairy products, sweet meat, soft drinks, confectionery, etc. These colors are also used in oral medicines like capsules, tablets, syrups and liquids to improve their appearance. Some of the primary colors are water soluble.

A common problems of the daily routine in homes and laboratory is that of removal of unwanted materials like oils, grease dirt, etc. from the surface of clothes, utensils, apparatus, machines and our skin. Soaps and detergents are best chemical used for this purpose. It may not be known to many of us that soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids like stearic, palmitic and oleic acids. Fatty acids are organic acids that have more than sixteen carbon atoms in their molecular structure. The sodium soaps are called hard soaps and the potassium soaps are known as soft soaps. Soaps are obtained from oils and fats. For example, tristearin is got from beef and mutton tallow, tripalmitin from palm oil and triolein from lard (pig fat), olive oil and cotton seed oil. In India, soap is commonly got from Coconut, groundnut, Til and Mahua oils. They possess the desirable properties of ordinary soaps and can be used with hard water and in acidic solutions as well. Synthetic detergents are sodium salts of long chain benzene sulphonic acids or sodium salt of long chain alkyl hydrogen sulphates. Their calcium or magnesium salts are soluble in water.

Finally it may not be out of context to add that propellants, insect-repellants and pheromones, are also chemicals. Propellants are the fuels such as alcohol, liquid hydrogen, liquid ammonia, kerosene, hydrazine and paraffin etc that are used in rockets for propulsion. Chemicals like dimethyl phthalate, N, N-diethyl- meta- toulamide, N - N - diethyl benzamide are used as effective repellents against mosquitoes, flies and other insects. These are widely used in insect repellant body creams. Another way to get rid of insects is to use pheromones or insect sex attractants. Chemicals used as Pheromones help induce the mating urge and attract insects of opposite sex. When coated on poisonous baits, they prove fatal for insects.





By: Dr.Badruddin Khan

In most cases you will notice that rust has been on your driveway and sidewalks for ever. The problem comes up that the cement is in fact… a hard surface and next to plant life. While most rust removers will just tear apart your sidewalk and driveway, you could go a bit softer. How do you softer when with concrete rust removal. Simple, go organic and do less work and not kill any of your plants.

Concrete rust removal usually involves some harsh acids and pretty nasty chemicals. This is not the case anymore, in fact new natural cleaning product manufacturers are developing ways to get rid of rust from the cement by neutralizing it.

They now have specific products that are being used in the skyscrapers in New York city and also the bridges. Once the population heard there was a easier way to remove rust without even having to wipe it or scrub it away, the organic concrete rust removers are now in many commercial businesses.

So how do you not get burned and how do you actually neutralize rust so you do not have to wipe or scrub it?

This is in the chemistry of a product. While older products used acid to neutralize, we now have newer and pure raw materials that work extremely well.

These raw materials are combined and form an organic solution that you can use indoors and outdoors. No worry about burning your hand off. These organic concrete rust removers are really a force to be reckon with.

So what is the secret formula?

Well while most of it is proprietary, there is some evidence that kelp is being used which is a sea weed type plant and also citrus oils from the earth. The earth products some very powerful ingredients that are non-toxic and safe to use. Once the chemist department find that out, they begin placing these amazing ingredients into action.

The challenge is making sure these ingredients are pure and organic. With many organic concrete rust removers, the raw materials are very pure high quality grade. They do not use solvent based material and this is in fact why they are better performing rust removers from lab tests.

If you looking for a safe way to remove rust from concrete or any other surface for that matter, it is recommended to go and start looking into developing or using your own organic rust remover. It is a process to get the right mixture of raw materials, but when found the results are amazing. For instance for Rusterizer which is an organic concrete rust remover. The product will neutralize rust within in 3 seconds or 3 sprays guaranteed which ever comes first. This is one of many rust removers, while organic products are not as commonly available. Be sure to research and try to get your hands on the safe concrete rust removers. These products have pure raw materials formulated within them and are safe to use around children and pets. Also, they are very powerful to use outside.

The problem many rust projects have is that the product is just to dangerous to use. Let us be honest who the heck wants to play with muriatic acid?





By: Drago Marxx

It may be fascinating to delve into the realms of chemistry and unravel its many mysteries, but it’s certainly not the easiest of subjects to master. It requires focus, dedication and daily studying to keep up with this complex science. Besides the subject matter that is taught in classrooms, some extra help in understanding and learning chemistry is always welcome.

Traditionally, the only way to glean extra information on any topic was to visit one of the bigger libraries and browse through huge tomes dealing with the subject. But with the advent of the Internet, that scenario is a thing of the past. Now, with the click of a mouse, you can find out anything you need to in chemistry, whether it is information on Electro- chemistry or Organic Chemistry; Nuclear Reactions or Chemical Reactions, Thermodynamics or Equilibrium.

There are numerous online sites that provide in-depth information and tutorials on any of the various topics that are included in chemistry. Online encyclopedias are great if you are looking for static information on chemistry.

However, here are a couple of ways to get inter-active help on any question you may want to get answers to.

Chemistry Help Forums

Using a forum is one of the most innovative ways of getting help with chemistry online. You can enter most chemistry forums as a guest and read any of the questions and answers posted there. However if you want to post a question or answer a query you would need to register as a member. Registration is usually free, quick and simple.

One of the most exciting things about using a forum for getting help with chemistry online is that your question goes out to a large number of people. This means that the question is open for anyone to answer and the answers are open for everyone to read. Varied answers to your question can open up your mind to endless possibilities. And further discussions with other members can only help enhance your learning experience.

You can choose to post your question in a General Chemistry forum or you could choose one of the several specialized forums including Organic Chemistry Forum, Analytical Chemistry Forum or Inorganic Chemistry Forum.

Chemistry e-Tutor

Registering at an online site that has chemistry tutors to help you out is another way to get help with chemistry online. Online tutors do not just give you outright answers to your questions; they help you learn just like conventional tutors.

Some of the benefits of registering with an online e-Tutor include:

The convenience of logging in at any time from anywhere, which is great for students who are unable to attend school temporarily or those who tend to travel a lot due to career or family demands.

Tutorials are more than just question-and-answer sessions. They impart knowledge, build learning skills and teach students to explore additional resources that can enhance the impact of their lessons.





By: Adrian Adams