Chemistry is a science of substances, their properties, and how and why materials combine or separate to form different substances. Atoms, molecules and compounds are the involved ones in the study of Chemistry. In other words, it is how atoms interact to form molecules and how molecules interact with each other. It also looks into the composition of substances and their properties. The outer electron orbits or shells primarily determine the chemical characteristics of a material and whether materials will chemically combine. Thus Chemistry is the study of the composition of matter and the changes that take place in that composition. If we place a bar of iron outside our window, the iron bar will soon begin to rust. If we pour vinegar on baking soda, the mixture fizzes. If we hold a sugar cube over a flame, the sugar begins to turn brown and give off steam. The goal of chemistry is to understand the composition of substances such as iron, vinegar, baking soda, and sugar and to understand what happens during the changes described here.

The term chemistry has grown out of an earlier field of study known as alchemy. Alchemy has been described as a kind of pre-chemistry, in which scholars studied the nature of matter but without the formal scientific approach that modern chemists use. The term alchemy is probably based on the Arabic name for Egypt, al-Kimia, or the “black country.” Ancient scholars learned a great deal about matter, usually by trial- and-error methods. For example, the Egyptians mastered many technical procedures such as making different types of metals, manufacturing colored glass, dying cloth, and extracting oils from plants. Alchemists of the Middle Ages discovered a number of elements and compounds and perfected other chemical techniques, such as distillation and crystallization. The modern subject of chemistry did not appear, however, until the eighteenth century. At that point, scholars began to recognize that research on the nature of matter had to be conducted according to certain specific rules. Among these rules was one stating that ideas in chemistry had to be subjected to experimental tests. Nowadays keeping in view the overall significance and versatility of chemistry, we can say that:

Chemistry is a science:  There is only one sanctioned procedure for determining whether a statement about matter is really chemistry: the exhaustive, inefficient, but highly successful scientific method. Chemists often arrive at new results by nonscientific means (like luck or sheer creativity), but their work isn’t chemistry unless it can be reproduced and verified scientifically.

Chemistry is a systematic study: Chemists have devised several good methods for solving problems and making observations. For example, analytical chemists often use protocols (thoroughly tested recipes) for determining the concentrations of substances in a sample. Chemists use well-defined techniques like spectroscopy and chromatography to study new or unknown substances.

Chemistry is the study of the composition and properties of matter:  Chemistry is the study of the composition and properties of matter as it answers questions like, “What kind of stuff is a sample made of? What does the sample look like on a molecular scale? How does the structure of the material determine its properties? How do the properties of the material change when we increase temperature, or pressure, or some other environmental variable?”

Chemistry is the study of the reactivity of substances:  Chemistry is the study of the reactivity of substances as one material can be changed into another by a chemical reaction. A complex substance can by made from simpler ones. Chemical compounds can break down into simpler substances. For example, fuels burn, food cooks, leaves turn their colors in the fall, cells grow, medicines cure and it is both their chemistry and the chemistry which is concerned with the essential processes that make these changes happen. Today, the science of chemistry is often divided into four major areas: organic, inorganic, physical, and analytical chemistry. Each discipline investigates a different aspect of the properties and reactions of matter.

Organic chemistry: Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds. That definition sometimes puzzles beginning chemistry students because more than 100 chemical elements are known. How does it happen that one large field of chemistry is devoted to the study of only one of those elements and its compounds? The answer to that question is that carbon is a most unusual element. It is the only element whose atoms are able to combine with each other in apparently endless combinations. Many organic compounds consist of dozens, hundreds, or even thousands of carbon atoms joined to each other in a continuous chain. Other organic compounds consist of carbon chains with other carbon chains branching off them. Still other organic compounds consist of carbon atoms arranged in rings, cages, spheres, or other geometric forms. The scope of organic chemistry can be appreciated by knowing that more than 90 percent of all compounds known to science (more than 10 million compounds) are organic compounds. Organic chemistry is of special interest because it deals with many of the compounds that we encounter in our everyday lives: natural and synthetic rubber, vitamins, carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils, cloth, plastics, paper, and most of the compounds that make up all living organisms, from simple one-cell bacteria to the most complex plants and animals.

Inorganic chemistry: Inorganic chemistry is the study of the chemistry of all the elements in the periodic table except for carbon. Like their cousins in the field of organic chemistry, inorganic chemists have provided the world with countless numbers of useful products, including fertilizers, alloys, ceramics, household cleaning products, building materials, water softening and purification systems, paints and stains, computer chips and other electronic components, and beauty products. The more than 100 elements included in the field of inorganic chemistry have a staggering variety of properties. Some are gases, others are solid, and a few are liquid. Some are so reactive that they have to be stored in special containers, while others are so inert (inactive) that they virtually never react with other elements. Some are so common they can be produced for only a few cents a pound, while others are so rare that they cost hundreds of dollars an ounce. Because of this wide variety of elements and properties, most inorganic chemists concentrate on a single element or family of elements or on certain types of reactions.

Physical chemistry: Physical chemistry is the branch of chemistry that investigates the physical properties of materials and relates these properties to the structure of the substance. Physical chemists study both organic and inorganic compounds and measure such variables as the temperature needed to liquefy a solid, the energy of the light absorbed by a substance, and the heat required to accomplish a chemical transformation. A computer is used to calculate the properties of a material and compare these assumptions to laboratory measurements. Physical chemistry is responsible for the theories and understanding of the physical phenomena utilized in organic and inorganic chemistry.

Analytical chemistry: Analytical chemistry is that field of chemistry concerned with the identification of materials and with the determination of the percentage composition of compounds and mixtures. These two lines of research are known, respectively, as qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis. Two of the oldest techniques used in analytical chemistry are gravimetric and volumetric analysis. Gravimetric analysis refers to the process by which a substance is precipitated (changed to a solid) out of solution and then dried and weighed. Volumetric analysis involves the reaction between two liquids in order to determine the composition of one or both of the liquids.

In the last half of the twentieth century, a number of mechanical systems have been developed for use in analytical research. For example, spectroscopy is the process by which an unknown sample is excited (or energized) by heating or by some other process. The radiation given off by the hot sample can then be analyzed to determine what elements are present. Various forms of spectroscopy are available (X-ray, infrared, and ultraviolet, for example) depending on the form of radiation analyzed. Other analytical techniques now in use include optical and electron microscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (MRI; used to produce a three-dimensional image), mass spectrometry (used to identify and find out the mass of particles contained in a mixture), and various forms of chromatography (used to identify the components of mixtures).

Other fields of chemistry: The division of chemistry into four major fields is in some ways misleading and inaccurate. In the first place, each of these four fields is so large that no chemist is an authority in any one field. An inorganic chemist might specialize in the chemistry of sulfur, the chemistry of nitrogen, the chemistry of the inert gases, or in even more specialized topics. Secondly, many fields have developed within one of the four major areas, and many other fields cross two or more of the major areas. For an example of specialization, the subject of biochemistry is considered a subspecialty of organic chemistry. It is concerned with organic compounds that occur within living systems. An example of a cross-discipline subject is bioinorganic chemistry. Bioinorganic chemistry is the science dealing with the role of inorganic elements and their compounds (such as iron, copper, and sulfur) in living organisms. At present, chemists explore the boundaries of chemistry and its connections with other sciences, such as biology, environmental science, geology, mathematics, and physics. A chemist today may even have a so-called nontraditional occupation. He or she may be a pharmaceutical salesperson, a technical writer, a science librarian, an investment broker, or a patent lawyer, since discoveries by a traditional chemist may expand and diversify into a variety of fields that encompass our whole society.

Chemists have two major goals. One is to find out the composition of matter in order to learn what elements are present in a given sample and in what percentage and arrangement. This type of research is known as analysis. A second goal is to invent new substances that replicate or are different from those found in nature. This form of research is known as synthesis. In many cases, analysis leads to synthesis. That is, chemists may find that some naturally occurring substance is a good painkiller. That discovery may suggest new avenues of research that will lead to a synthetic (human-made) product similar to the natural product, but with other desirable properties (and usually lower cost). Many of the substances that chemistry has produced for human use have been developed by this process of analysis and synthesis.





By: Dr.Badruddin Khan

When Humphry Davy, a British Chemist, electrolyzed molten potassium hydroxide in 1807 to extract the first of the alkali metals, Davy obtained such acclaim for his extraction of these metals from their salts that the following rhyme was written about him by E.C.Bentley;

Sir Humphry Davy

Abominated gravy

Lived in the odium

Of having discovered Sodium

When Napoleon, the then French ruler, came to know of this news, he became very angry as to why the French chemists had not been the first to do this. Interestingly, it was a coincidence that Napoleon’s dream was fulfilled in 1939 when none less than a French chemist, Marguerite Perry, not only isolated the alkali metal that exists only as radioactive isotopes, but also named it Francium after his native country, France ,and consoled the soul of the then deceased emperor.

If we think about the history of both the underlying basis and the controversies behind names and symbols of some of the chemical elements, the facts and figures themselves will speak about the factuality and the reality. In the early days of chemistry a scientist who happened to discover a new element, had the honor of naming it too. But now discoverers/researchers are required to submit their choices for a name to an international Scientific Body called the “International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry”, IUPAC, to have a new element properly named and placed on the periodic table due to contradictory claims of active research groups and tug of war between them for the sake of getting mileage and recognition out of their claimed contributions, if any.

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) is an international non-governmental organization established in 1919 devoted to the advancement of chemistry. It is most well known as the recognized authority in developing standards for the naming of the chemical elements and their compounds, through its Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols (IUPAC nomenclature). It is a member of the International Council for Science (ICSU). In addition to nomenclature guidelines, the IUPAC sets standards for international spelling in the event of a dispute; for example, it ruled that international aluminium is preferable to the American aluminum and American sulfur is preferable to the British sulphur.

As researchers continue to discover elements and expand the periodic table, the job of deciding on a name and symbol is becoming not only an increasingly complex task but also a sensitive issue. The convention that an element be named by its discoverer(s), resulted in a nationalistic dispute between laboratories attempting to synthesize the elements first, thus earning naming rights for having “discovered” them. Therefore, in this context discovery is synonymous with first synthesis. The controversy arose when multiple groups claimed to have discovered the same elements. Usually the Russians were the first to make the claim, and the Americans would dispute, claiming that the research could not be independently verified.

The four groups which were involved in the conflict over element naming were:

*An American group at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

*A Russian group at Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna

*A German group at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt

*The IUPAC Commission on Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, which introduced its own proposal to the IUPAC General Assembly.

While the preferred names for the elements by the American group for elements having atomic numbers: 104, 105, and 106, were: rutherfordium, hafnium, and seaborgium respectively, the preferred names for the elements having atomic numbers: 104 and 105 by the Russian group were: kurchatovium, and nielsbohrium respectively. However the preferred names for the elements having atomic numbers: 107, 108, and 109, by the German group were: nielsbohrium, hassium, and meitnerium.

As per IUPAC proposal element 104 was to be named after Igor Kurchatov, father of the Russian atomic bomb, and this was the obvious reason that the name was objectionable to the Americans. The American name to 106 was objectionable to some because Glenn T. Seaborg was still alive and hence his name could not be used for an element in accordance with the IUPAC rules. While it is commonly stated that Seaborgium is the only element to have been named after a living person, this is not entirely true as both einsteinium and fermium were proposed as names of new elements discovered by Albert Ghiorso, Seaborg and the other American co-discoverers of those elements while Enrico Fermi and Albert Einstein were still living. However, the discovery of these elements and their names were kept secret under Cold War era nuclear secrecy rules, and thus the names could not become known either to the public or the broader scientific community until after the deaths of both Fermi and Einstein.

In 1994, the IUPAC Commission on Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry proposed the names: dubnium, joliotium, rutherfordium, bohrium, hahnium, and meitnerium for elements having atomic numbers:104,105, 106, 107,108, and109 respectively in an attempt to resolve the dispute by replacing the name for 104 with one honoring the Dubna research center, and not naming 106 after Seaborg.

However, this solution drew objections from the American Chemical Society (ACS) on the grounds that the right of the American group to propose the name for element 106 was not in question and that group should have the right to name the element whatever it wanted to. Indeed, under the most compromising intentions, IUPAC decided that the credit for the discovery of element 106 should be shared between both Berkeley and Dubna but the Dubna group did not oblige IUPAC by coming forward with a name for this element. In addition, given that many American books had already used Rutherfordium and Hahnium for 104 and 105, the ACS objected to those names being used for other elements. Seaborg commented wryly at a talk in 1995 that “There has been some reluctance on the part of the Commission for Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry to accept the name after me because I’m still alive and they can prove it, they say.” Finally in 1997, the names agreed upon on the 39th IUPAC General Assembly in Geneva, Switzerland, were: 104 - rutherfordium; 105 - dubnium; 106 - seaborgium; 107 - bohrium; 108 - hassium, and 109 - meitnerium.

In 1999, Glenn T. Seaborg died, still disputing the name change for At.No.105 and adamant about it remaining known as Hahnium. His reason concerning Dubna in Russia was his belief that they had made a false claim about discovering the element for which they had been credited. Interestingly and understably when the Dubna group finally did release some additional data on the experiment, Seaborg was quick to claim that it was a misreading of the decay pattern of their product. Even then, the Dubna group still refused to remove their claim. Some people in the Berkeley group and some others still refer to it as Hahnium.

The list of chemical elements named after people with symbol and atomic numbers given in brackets are as: bohrium (Bh, 107) in recognition of Niels Bohr; curium (Cm, 96) in recognition of Pierre and Marie Curie; einsteinium (Es, 99) in recognition of Albert Einstein; fermium (Fm, 100) in recognition of Enrico Fermi; gallium (Ga, 31) , although named after Gallia (Latin for France), the discoverer of the metal Lecoq de Boisbaudran subtly attached an association with his name. Lecoq (rooster) in Latin is gallus; lawrencium (Lr, 103) in recognition of Ernest Lawrence; meitnerium (Mt, 109) in recognition of Lise Meitner; mendelevium (Md, 101) in recognition of Dmitri Mendeleev; nobelium (No, 102) in recognition of Alfred Nobel; roentgenium (Rg, 111) in recognition of Wilhelm Roentgen; rutherfordium (Rf, 104) in recognition of Ernest Rutherford, and seaborgium (Sg, 106) in recognition of Glenn T. Seaborg.

The element naming controversy that surrounded elements 104 to 109 saw two further names derived from people gain partial acceptance. Neither was or is accepted by IUPAC. hahnium (Hh, 105) in recognition of Otto Hahn, now known as dubnium, and kurchatovium (Ku, 104) in recognition of Igor Kurchatov, now known as rutherfordium.

The elements named after mythical characters are: niobium (Nb, 41) for Niobe, a mortal woman in Greek mythology; promethium (Pm, 61) for Prometheus, a Titan from Greek mythology; tantalum (Ta, 73) for Tantalus, from Greek mythology; thorium (Th, 90) for Thor, the Norse god of thunder; titanium (Ti, 22) for the Titans, from Greek mythology, and vanadium (V, 23) for Scandinavian goddess Vanadis (Freyja). Many chemical elements are named after astronomical bodies which are named after Greek or Roman deities. It is interesting to note that Gadolinium (Gd, 64) has got its name from the mineral gadolinite, which in turn is named after the Finnish chemist and geologist Johan Gadolin and Samarium (Sm, 62) is believed to be named after the mineral samarskite which in turn is named after Vasili Samarsky-Bykhovets, a Russian mine official.

Many elements have been named after places such as: americium for the Americas; berkelium for the city of Berkeley, California, home of the University of California; californium for both the state of California and University of California, Berkeley; copper is probably named after Cyprus; darmstadtium for Darmstadt, Germany; dubnium for Dubna, Russia; erbium for Ytterby, Sweden; europium for Europe; francium for France; gallium for Gallia, Latin for France(Frenchman Lecoq de Boisbaudran, who was the discoverer of the metal, named it after his country and also subtly for himself. Lecoq (rooster) in Latin is gallus); germanium for Germany; hafnium for Hafnia, Latin for Copenhagen; hassium for Hesse, Germany; holmium for Holmia, Latin for Stockholm; lutetium for Lutetia, Latin for Paris; magnesium for Magnesia, Thessaly, Greece; polonium for Poland; rhenium for Rhenus, Latin for Rhine; ruthenium for Ruthenia, Latin for Rus’ (Russia, Ukraine and Belarus); scandium for Scandia, Latin for Scandinavia; strontium for Strontian, Scotland; terbium for Ytterby, Sweden; thulium for Thule, a mythical island in the far north, perhaps Scandinavia; ytterbium again for Ytterby, Sweden, and yttrium still again for the same Ytterby, Sweden.

It is worth noting that four elements namely: Erbium, Terbium, Ytterbium and Yttrium, have been named after Ytterby, a small place in Sweden.

While concluding this wright up it may be added that some elements have been named after astronomical objects too, for example, cerium for Ceres; helium for Helios, the Greek name for the Sun; neptunium for Neptune; palladium for Pallas; plutonium for Pluto; selenium for Selene, the Greek name for the Moon; tellurium for Tellus, the Latin name for the Earth; uranium for Uranus, and mercury for Mercury , which was itself named after the Roman god Mercury.





By: Dr.Badruddin Khan

Contributions of Ancient Arabian and Egyptian Scientists on Chemistry

Md. Wasim Aktar* and M. Paramasivam

Deptt. of Agril. Chemicals, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, India.

Abstracts

The modern chemistry is based on the findings and thinking of the people of historical age. If no one knows the base and work of the previous on a subject, he or she could mere develop a new thought or findings. For, a civilization must know its past. Hence, the present work is a small effort to find out the contribution of ancient Arabian and Egyptian scientists in the field of Chemistry. Different scientists of different school of thought, correlating different streams of science being Chemistry as a main subject, are described in the present work.

Chemistry deals with the composition and properties of substances and the changes of composition they undergo. It has been divided into Inorganic and Organic. The conception of this in modern Chemistry came from al-Rãzi’s classification of chemical substances into mineral, vegetable and animal. Inorganic Chemistry, deals with the preparation and properties of the elements, and their compounds, originally arose from the study of minerals and metals, whereas Organic Chemistry, which deals with carbon compounds, developed through the investigation of animal and plant products.

Prior to 1828 it was not possible to synthesize organic substances from their elements and, therefore, it was supposed that there existed fundamental difference between Organic and Inorganic Chemistry. In 1828 F. Wohler synthetically prepared urea, an organic substance; thereby revealing that there was no fundamental difference between these two branches of Chemistry. Since carbon compounds were numerous, their study separately made under Organic Chemistry, and study of elements and non-carbon compounds included in Inorganic Chemistry’. (1)

The earliest discoveries in Inorganic Chemistry were made in metallurgy, Materia Medica, painting, enameling, glazing, glass-making, arts, etc. These arts, and many metals, compounds and alloys were known to the Arabs. Similarly, the discoveries in Organic Chemistry were made in the arts of dyeing, tanning, the manufacture of paper, in the study of fats, both of plant and animal origin, in medicine, etc. Thus Chemistry had its sources in photo techniques, mineralogy, metallurgy, Materia Medica and decorative arts. It is the product of transmutation of baser metals into gold

and philosophical thoughts of practical or theoretical interest. Finally, it is the result of the study of the properties of the substances.

A Greek philosopher, Empedocles, held the view that all the four elements, air, water, earth and fire, were the primal elements, and that the various substances were made by their intermixing. He regarded them to be distinct and unchangeable. Aristotle considered these elements to be changeable i.e., one kind of matter could be changed into another kind. (2)

Jábir ibn Hayyãn (Liatinized as Geber), a great Arabian Chemist of the 8th century A.C., modified the Aristotelian doctrine of the four elements, and presented the so-called sulphur-mercury theory of metals. According to this theory metals differ essentially because of different proportions of sulphur and mercury in them. He also formulated the theory of geologic formation of metals.

Unlike his Greek predecessors, he did not merely speculate, but performed experiments to reach certain conclusions. He recognized and stated the importance of experimentation in Chemistry. He combined the theoretical knowledge of the Greeks and practical knowledge of the craftsmen, and himself made noteworthy advance both in the theory and practice of Chemistry.

Jâbir’s contribution to Chemistry is very great. He gave a scientific description of two principle operations of Chemistry. One of them is calcinations which is employed in the extraction of metals from their ores. The other is reduction which is employed in numerous chemical treatments. He improved upon the methods of evaporation, melting, distillation, sublimation and crystallization. These are the fundamental methods employed for the purification of chemical substances, enabling the chemist to study their properties and uses, and to prepare them. The process of distillation is particularly applied for taking extract of plant material.

In the opinion of Jàbir the cultivation of gold was not the only object of a chemist. The preparation of new chemical substances was also regarded by him as the chief object of Chemistry. We owe to him for the first preparation of such substances as arsenic and antimony from their sulphides, and basic lead carbonate. He also did important work in the preparation of steel, and the refinement of metals. Jàbir also deals with such applications as the use of manganese dioxide in glass-making, varnishes to water-proof cloth and protect iron use of iron pyrites for writing in gold and distillation of vinegar to concentrate acetic acid.

The most important discovery made by Jabir was the preparation of sulphuric acid. The importance of this discovery can be realized by the fact that in this modern age the extent of the industrial progress of a country is mostly judged by the amount of. sulphuric acid consumed in that country. Another important acid prepared by him was nitric acid which he obtained by distilling a mixture of alum (of Yemen) and copper sulphate (of Cyprus). Then by dissolving ammonium chloride into this acid, he prepared aqua regia which, unlike acids, could dissolve gold in it.

Jabir classified chemical substances, on the basis of some distinctive features, into bodies (gold, silver, etc.) and souls (mercury, sulphur, etc.) to make the study of their properties easier.

Jãbir is the author of a large number of books on chemistry and a book on astrolabe. About one hundred chemical works ascribed to him are extant. His fame chiefly rests on his chemical books preserved in Arabic. (3)

We find that the author recognized and stated clearly the importance of experimentation more clearly than any other early chemist. He remarkably sound views on methods of chemical research. It is impossible to reach definite conclusions regarding the extent of his contributions until all the Arabic writings ascribed to him have been properly edited and studied. But on the basis of our present knowledge, Jabir appears to be one of the greatest scientist whose influence can be traced throughout the whole period of the historical development of the Arabian and European chemistry. In the light of these facts it would not be improper to call Jãbir as the father of Chemistry.

Some of the chemical writings to which Jãbir’s name is attached were translated into Latin. The first such version, the Book of the Composition of Alchemy was made by Robert of Chester in 1144. The Kitab al-Sab’in (the book of the seventy) was translated by Gerard of Cremona in the 12th century’. The translation of the Sum of Perfection was made by Richard Russell. One of his books has been translated into French by Berthelot. (4)

Several technical terms have passed from Jãbir’s Arabic writings through Latin into the European languages. Among these are realgar (red sulphide of arsenic), tutia (zinc oxide), alkali, antimony, and alembic for distillation Vessel. The Arabic equivalents for the last three words are alqali, ithmad, and al-’anbiq respectively. (5)

Before Jãbir Ibn Hayyan, the Umayyad prince Khalid Ibn Yazid, who was a philosopher, poet and chemist, encouraged Greek philosophers in Egypt to translate Greek scientific works into Arabic. These were among the earliest translations in Arabic from other languages. He was himself deeply interested in medicine, astrology and chemistry. Many chemical works are ascribed to him. One of them is entitled Firdaus al-Hikmah fi’Ilm al-Kimiya. This work was in verse, and contained 2,315 couplets. (6)

An encyclopaedic scientist, and philosopher, Abu Yusuf Ya’qub al-Kindi considered the art of transformation of one metal into the other as an imposture. A few of ‘his numerous works dealing with many sciences are extant. One of his works is on pharmacy, a branch of applied chemistry. (7)



Chemistry was usually mixed up with mineralogy and geology. The oldest Arabian lapidary which may serve as an important source of chemistry was written by ‘Utärid Ibn Muhammad al-Hãsib who flourished in the ninth century. It deals with the properties of precious stones. (8)

In the same century Jãbir’s work was further advanced by al-Räzi who wrote many chemical treatises, and described a number of chemical instruments. One of his treatises consists of 25 pieces of chemical apparatus. He made investigations on specific gravity. One of his important works is on the art of transformation of baser metals into the noble ones. He applied his chemical knowledge for medical purposes, thus laying the foundation of Iatrochemistry. (9)

Other important chemists of this century were Dhu’l-Nün and al-Jàhiz. The former mostly dealt with the art of transmutation of metals. (10) The latter prepared ammonia from animal offals by dry distillation. (11)

In the tenth century Ibn Wahshiyah wrote on chemistry, His work may help to understand chemical symbolism. Maslamah Ibn Ahmad, an astronomer, mathematician and oculist of this century wrote two chemical works entitled, Rutbat al-Hakim and Ghãyat al-Hakim. The second is well known in the Latin translation made in 1252 by the order of King Alfonso under the title Picatrix. (12)

A Persian pharmacologist Abü Mansür Muwaffaq Ibn ‘Ali al-Harawi who flourished in Herat in the tenth century, was apparently the first to think of compiling a treatise on Materia Medica in Persian. He travelled extensively in Persia and India to obtain necessary information. He wrote, between 968 and 977, a book entitled Kitab al-Abniyah ‘an Haqã’iq al-Adwiyah. It contains Greek, Syrian, Arabian, Persian, and Indian knowledge. It deals with 585 remedies (of which 466 are derived from plants, 75 from minerals, and 44 from animals). He classified them into four groups according to their action, and gave the outline of a general pharmacological theory.

Abu Mansür distinguished between sodium carbonate (natrum) and potassium carbonate (qali). He had some knowledge of arsenious oxide, cupric oxide, silicic acid, antimony and so on. He knew the toxicological effects of copper and lead compounds, the depilatory virtue of quicklime, the composition of plaster of Paris and its surgical use. (13)

The greatest Arabian surgeon, Khalaf Ibn ‘Abbäs al-Zahrãwi (d. 1013) wrote a great medical encyclopaedia, al-Tasrif in 30 sections, which contains interesting methods of preparing drugs by sublimation and distillation, but its most important part is the surgical one. (14)

Abü Rayhan Muhammad al-Birüni (973—1048) took a great interest in the determination of the specific gravity of eighteen precious stones and metals. A voluminous unedited lapidary by al- Biruni is extant in unique manuscript in the Escorial Library. It contains a description of a great number of stones and metals from the natural, commercial, and medical point of view. Moreover, he composed a pharmacology (saydalah).Important information could certainly be obtained from his unedited works, on the origin of Indian and Chinese stones and drugs, which appeared in early Arabic scientific works. (15)

Ibn Sinà wrote a treatise on minerals, which was very important and one of the main sources of geological knowledge, also a source of chemistry in Western Europe until the Renaissance.

As mentioned before, mineralogy stood in close relation to chemistry. Nearly fifty Arabic lapidaries have been named. The best known of them is. the ‘Flowers of Knowledge of Stones’, by Shihàb al-Din al-Tifãshi (died in Cairo in 1154). It gives in 25 chapters extensive information on the subject of the same number of precious stones, their origin, geography, examination, purity, price, application for medicinal and magical purposes, and so on. Except for Pliny and the superior Aristotelian lapidary, he quotes only Arabic authors. (16)

The output of the books on Chemistry was very great after the eleventh century. Thus, there are known books of about forty Arabic and Persian chemists. Ibn Khaldun, (d. 1406) the talented Arabian philosopher of history and the greatest intellect of his century, was a violent opponent of the idea of transmutation of metals by chemical means. (17)

Some chemists thought that one metal can be transformed into another by artificial methods. For such transformation they followed different procedures depending on the character and form of the chemical treatment and the substance chosen for this purpose; the substance being called the ‘Noble Stone’ or ‘Philosopher’s Stone’. This may be excrements, or blood, or hair, or eggs, or anything else. After the substance has been specified, it is treated along certain lines mentioned in their books. The result is an earthen or fluid substance which is called Elixir. These chemists think that if Elixir is added to silver which has been heated in a fire, the silver turns into gold. If added to copper which had been heated in a fire, the copper turns into silver.

The question arises whether the metals are of specific differences, each constituting a distinct species, or whether they differ in certain properties and qualities and constitute different kinds of one and the same species?

Abü Nasr al-Färabi and his followers held the opinion that the difference in metals is caused by certain conditions such as humidity and dryness, softness and hardness, and colours such as yellow, white and black. According to him the metals are different kinds of one and the same species.

On the other hand, Ibn Sina and his followers believed that metals have specific differences and belong to different species, each of which has its own differential and genus, like all other species.

According to Abü Nasr al-Färãbi, it is possible to transform one metal into another, because it is possible to change their conditions.

“Ibn Sinà thought that such transformation was impossible. His assumption is based on the fact that specific differences in metals cannot be changed by artificial means. He believed that since the metals are created by the Creator and Determiner of things, God Almighty, and the mystery of their real character was utterly unknown and could not be perceived, any attempt for transformation would be meaningless”. (18)

Ancient Arabs’ art of transformation of metals was based upon Hellenistic and Iranian traditions, but apparently the main principles and the main operations were already established long before the 12th century. Before this century the Arabs had not only made many experiments, and produced several works on this art, but they had begun to doubt and criticise the most advanced theories concerning it. This proves that the standard of their chemical thinking was advanced.

The 12th and 13th centuries added very little to their knowledge about the transformation of metals, but their research continued in various fields. The main chemical writer of this age was Abu‘l-Qãsim Muhammad al-Iraqi who flourished in the second half of the 13th century. He was an experimenter and a theorist. His works represent the full development of the Arabic doctrine. (19)

The 14th century was an enlightened period when a group of intelligent writers began to reject the idea of transformation of metals by chemical means. One of such person was a historian, Rashid al-Din who described such chemical practice in Mongol Persia and expressed his distrust of such chemists. The large encyclopaedic work Nukhbat al-Dahr of al-Dimashqi contains, in part second, much information on metal, their properties, and influences. (19) As usual in Arabic treatises, chemistry is mixed up with mineralogy and geology. (20)

Even in their purely chemical researches on transformation of metals, the Arab chemists achieved by no means unimportant results. In their efforts to discover Elixir they often discovered new chemical processes, and hit upon the catalytic properties of various substances. The pains, which they took in the search of gold, ultimately resulted in their great contribution to the development of modern chemistry.

The last important chemist of the 14th century was ‘Izz al-Din ‘Ali Ibn al- Jildaki. Some twenty treatises are ascribed to him. The list shows al-Jildaki’s great activity as a chemical writer. A complete study of his vast writings is necessary to know what he actually tried to establish. To some extent, this study was made by Ruska, Stapleton, Holm yard, and their disciples.

One of al-Jildaki’s important books entitled Nihâyat al-Talab fi Sharh al-Muktasab contains many quotations from the earlier works, and some novelties, as the use of nitric acid to extract silver out of the gold-silver alloy. Al- Jildaki remarked that the substances do not react except by definite weights. (21) This is one of the four fundamental laws of modern chemistry.

The ancient chemists applied their chemical knowledge to a large number of industrial arts. Only three such arts are mentioned here, which will enable the readers to estimate the extent of their knowledge of Applied Chemistry.

Paper:

Paper was invented by the Chinese who prepared it from the cocoon of the silkworm. Some specimens of Chinese paper extant date back to the second century A.C. The first manufacture of the paper outside China occurred in Samarqand (757). When Samarqand was captured by Arabs the manufacture of paper spread over the whole Arab world including the Maghrib. (Tunis, Morocco, Algiers).

By the end of the 12th century there were four hundred paper mills in Fasalone. In Spain the main centre of manufacture of paper was Shatiba which remained a ancient Arab city until 1239. Cordova was the centre of the business of paper in Spain.

The Arabs developed this art. They prepared paper not only from silk, but also from cotton, rags and wood.In the middle of the 10th century the paper industry was introduced in Spain. In Khurasan paper was made of linen.

There is an early treatise dealing with paper-making, the Umdat al-Kuttab wa ‘Uddatu dhawi’l-Albãb which is ascribed to the Amir al- Mu’izz’ Ibn Badis, a ruler of the Zayri dynasty (1015—61) in Tunis. The 11th chapter of this treatise, dealing with paper, has been edited, translated and elaborately discussed by the foremost student of Arabic paper, Josef Karabacek. This work explains how to prepare the pulp, make the sheets, wash and clean them, colour, polish and paste them, and give them an antique appearance. No text comparable to this in any other language of so early a date is known.

The preparation of pulp involves a large number of complicated chemical processes, which shows the advancement of the chemical knowledge of the Arabs and Egyptians at that time.

The manufacture of writing-paper in Spain is one of the most beneficial contributions of Arabs to Europe. Without paper the scale on which popular education in Europe developed would have not been possible. The preparation of paper from silk would have been impossible in Europe due to the lack of silk production there. The Arabs method of producing paper from cotton could only be useful for the Europeans. After Spain the art of paper-making was established in Italy (1268—76). France owed its first paper mills to ancient Spain. From these countries the industry spread throughout Europe.

Another type of paper; marbled paper, which was common upon end-papers, paper covers and edges of books, was prepared in the East, and exported to the West. About the preparation of marbled paper Roger Bacon tells us: “The Turks have a pretty art of chamoletting of paper, which is not with us in use. They take diverse oiled colours, and put them severally (in drops) upon water; and stirr the water lightly and then wet their paper (being of some thickness) with it, and the paper will be waved, and veined, like Chamolet or Marble’.

Books bound in the West towards the end of the 16th century are found with end-papers brought from the East, but it was not until about a century later that European binders began to make them themselves. Hand-made marbled papers are now rarely used, but more or less clumsily reproduced imitations still serve various purposes.

There is an Arabic word ‘rizma’ meaning a bundle of merchandise, which had been adopted in almost every Western language with slight variations to mean a bundle of paper (English: ream). This also testifies to the Arabic origin of that business in the West. (22)

Tiles :

The industry of tile-making which involves a large number of complex technical and chemical processes, was highly developed by Arabs. The earliest treatise, a Persian text, dealing with the manufacture of faience, was unique of its kind in world literature until the 16th century. It has been written by ‘Abd Allah Ibn ‘Ali Kàshàni in the 13th century. This book entitled Jawahir al-‘Arã’is Wa Aja’ib al-Nafä’is was written on precious stones and perfumes. It explains the manufacture of Faience, the ingredients (as clay, borax, feldspar, cobalt, lapis lazuli, lead, manganese, tin etc.), their mixtures, the kiln processes and implements, the methods of glazing and decorating. This treatise is similar to the various other treatises on precious stones written in Arabic and Persian. The final chapter deals with the art of enamelled pottery. This account is specially valuable because it is based on actual and traditional practice. The maker of the beautiful lustre ‘mihrab’ (arch) of the tomb of Imam Yahyã (now in the Hermitage, Leningrad), dated 1305 A.C., Yusuf Ibn ‘Ali Ibn Muhammad, was possibly a brother of the author. (23)

Ceramics:

The early history of Arabian and Egyptian ceramics has not so far been written. Many interesting specimens have been discovered in recent years which throw much light on the development of this industry in the Arab world. The centers of this industry were situated in Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt and Valencia from where various types spread rapidly throughout the Islamic Caliphate.

Under Arabian influence the potters in these Centers revived old technical processes, developed new ones and began to experiment with decorative and ornamental schemes. The Arabian potters readily absorbed progressive ideas but at

the same time maintained great originality. Two types of pottery were in common use; enamelled and lustered. In enamelled pottery (the glazed earthenware) the Ancient s, from an early period, were expert masters. In lustered pottery also they made great progress. “In this the design is painted in a metallic salt on a glazed surface and fixed by firing in smike in a way that gives it a metallic gleam, which varies in different specimens from a bright copper-red to a greenish- yellow tint, and in some cases throws off brilliant iridescent reflections. (24)

In the last chapter of the Persian text Kitab al-Jawähir’ al-’Ara’is Wa ‘Ajã’ib al-Nafa’is, the author describes the techniques of glazing

with two fires (lustres), leaf building, over glaze decoration fired in a muffle kiln. (i.e.,

separated from the flame, the source of heat being outside), haf’t rang, a Persian term

referring to the seven colours of the planets. There may be a reference to the polychrome over glaze technique, the so called minai ware (another Persian term; mina-wash means lustre; mina coloured). The author indicates differences between the art as practiced in Kashan, Baghdad and Tabriz. In Baghdad and Tabriz other kinds of firewood and potash were used.

In the 15th century the Arabian ceramic art was followed by Italian potters, who obtained much of the mature technical knowledge from Arab sources. This technical knowledge proved to be helpful in the revival of ceramic art during the Renaissance. (25)

REFERENCES :-

1. Encyclopaedia Britannica, chicago, 1951, p.360

2. Ibid., p. 355.

3 Sarton George, Introduction to the History of Science, Washington, 1950, Vol I. p. 532.

4. Wasiti, Hakim Nayyar, Tibb al-’Arab ( ãn Urdu Translation of Arabian Medicine by Edward G. Browne), Lahore, 1954, p. 26.

5. Ibid.

6. Hãji Khalifah, Kashf al-Zunün, Istanbul, 1943. Vol., I, p. 1254.

Al-Zirakli, Khair al-Din, Al-’Alãm vol. II p. 342.

7. Sarton, op. cit., p. 559.

8. Ibid., p. 572. Al-Qifti, op. cit. p. 251.

9. Ibid., p. 271. Sarton, op. cit. p. 609.

10. lbid, p. 592.

11. lbid, p. 597.

12. Ibid., pp. 620, 668.

13. Ibid., p. 678.

14. Ibid., p. 681.

15 Ibid., p. 707.

16. Ibid, vol. II, part II, p. 650.

17. Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah, English translation by Frenz Rosenthal, London, 1957, vol. 3, p. 267.

18. Ibid. p. 278

19. Haji. Khalifah, op. cit. p. 1936.

20. Sarton, op. cit vol. III, part I, p. 759.

21. Ibid. Vol. II, Part. II, p. 1045.

22. Sarton, op. cit., Vol. III, Part I, p. 321.

23. Sarton, op. cit vol. III , part I, p. 756.

24 Arnold and Guillaume, op. cit. p. 125.





By: Md. Wasim Aktar

Selective F substitution of H opened up new horizons in biochemistry:

Properties

? Increased metabolic stability

? Increased lipophilicity

? Increased bio-availability

? Modified biological activity

 

 Applications

? Antibacterial

? Ant fungicides

? Antibiotics

? Protease inhibitors

? Anticancer

? Antidepressant

? Fungicides

? Herbicides

? Insecticides

 

C-F isosteric with C-H cause

Early studies suggested that, due to the ease with which organic F was introduced in the

metabolic pathway undisturbed, C-F was isosteric with C-H.

 Recent studies, however, suggest that C-F (van der Waals radius = 1.47 Å) is more nearly

isosteric with C-O (van der Waals radius = 1.52 Å) rather than with the C-H bond (van

der Waals radius = 1.2 Å); but F is still the smallest substituent and can be used as

replacement for the C-H bond.

  Fluorine substitution is often used as a strategy to:

                        1. develop enzyme inhibitors

                        2. render a compound resistant to chemical degradation

                       3. enhanced binding (lower Ki)to specific active sites.

 Fluoroacetate: a potent TCA cycle inhibitor

                         1)Fluoroacetate is one of the most deadly simple molecules known. It occurs naturally

                        in the leaves of a variety of poisonous tropical plants and it is used as rat poison.

                        2)Fluorocitrate inhibits the TCA transport in the mitochondria and the enzyme       cisaconitase.

                        3) It became immediately obvious that fluorine alters biological activity.

 Antidepressants – Serotonin (5-HT) reuptake inhibition

            1. In research that led to the development  of fluoxetine, a series of N-methyl       phenoxyphenylpropylamines was studied. The parent compound effectively blocked 5- HT uptake    with an inhibition constant (Ki) of 102 nM but also blocked norepinephrine uptake with a Ki of twice             this concentration.

             2. The para-trifluoromethyl substituted analogue (fluoxetine) increased potency and

            selectivity, having a six-fold increase in potency for inhibition of 5-HT uptake, but a

            100-fold decrease in potency for inhibition of norepinephrine uptake

 Treatment of Diabetes

             Glucagon-Like-Peptide-1 (GLP-1) stimulates insulin release and inhibits glucagons

            production.

             Glucagons stimulates an increased sugar concentration in the blood.

             GLP-1 is inactivated by the serine protease Dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DDP-IV).

            THEREFORE finding a DDP-IV inhibitor prolongs the beneficial effects of GLP-1.

            MK431 was developed.

            Deletion of the –CF3 group reduced bioavailability of MK431 in rats and

            led to a 4-fold decrease in enzyme affinity (Ki).

 Anti-obesity agents

            1. Melanin Stimulating Hormone (MSH) is involved in feeding behaviour:

            2 Mice lacking MSH gene have a lean phenotype (“feel full”). Therefore antagonists of

            MSH have been developed as anti obesity agents.

            3. The fluorinated analogy of the parent compounds showed much lower Ki; this

            translates into a lower dosage of the anti obesity agent.

 Treatment of cardiovascular diseases

            1. An impressive example of drug discovery is found in the development of intestinal

            cholesterol uptake by developing acyl-CoA cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT)

            inhibitors.

            2. On ACAT parent compound, oxidation at specific sites increased activity and strategic

            substitution of fluorine blocked unwanted metabolic oxidation.

 Fluorinated Antibacterial agents :

            1. Research has assessed that fluorination of the phenyl ring of the quinolone moiety

            improved antibacterial activity as compared to the parent compound by binding with

            lowered Ki to the P site of the 50S ribosomal subunit impeding transcription and therefore cellular replication and growth.

            2. Other improved properties include:

            a. better acid stability

            b. prolonged serum half-life

            c. higher tissue penetration

            d. better bioavailability.

 Anti-inflammatory agent

            1. 3-R,S thalidomide had been developed as a sedative in the 1950s but its teratogenic

            effects (cancer causing) led to its withdrawal from the world market in 1962.

            2. Recentenly there has been renewed interest in Thalidomide following specific clinical

            tests that showed its anti-inflammatory properties.

            3. In this example fluorine substitution (FLUOROTHALIDOMIDE, 107) showed

            beneficial effects without teratogenic side effects. Fluorine in this case probably acts as

            a metabolic cascade modifier.

 Anticancer agents: blocking ribosomal unit functionality impedes transcription

            1. DNA transcription occurs at the Ribosomal units

            2. Tumours are an uncontrolled reproduction of certain undesired cellural strains.

            3. Impeding transcription causes cellular death.

            This is the basis of Anti-cancer agents.

            Note that the  5-Fluorouracyl: the first potent fluorinated chemotherapeutic agent       (Heidelberg, 1956).

 Alternatives to 5-FU as Thimidylate Inhibitors

            1. 5-FU results in being fairly toxic with neurotoxic and cardio toxic side-effects due to:

                        a. lack of selectivity

                        b. over production of dUMP to compete with the active site.

                        c. More tolerable fluorinated 5-FU have therefore been developed.

 Alternatives to wide spectrum anti-tumor agents

            1. Methotrexate, a thimidilate antagonist, has historically been developed as a wide

            spectrum anti-cancer agent.

       Its fluorinated analogue, ZD-933 now in phase II/III clinical studies, has been found to

            be a specific antagonist to ovarian cancer cell-lines.

            2. In this case fluorine changes the specificity of the compound rather than modify its

            Action

 Pancreatic cancer antagonists

            1. Polimerase III antagonists are DNA replication antagonists which have been

            discovered to effectively inhibit cell replication.

            2. In the case of Gemzar® (hydrogenated) and Gemcitabine (fluorinated) fluorine

            substitution increases potency of the drug with respect to its hydrogenated analogue.

 Microtubule antagonists

            1. Microtubule synthesis inhibition has been found to effectively inhibit cell proliferation.

            2. In this case, fluorine substitution prolongues metabolic life of the anticancer agent with

            respect to the hydrogenated parent compound..

 Estrogen anticancer agents.

            1. Mifepristone, the hydrogenated parent compound, has been found to be a good

            progesterone receptor antagonist.

            2. In this case fluorine substitution generated a new generation of progesterone receptor

            antagonists with the highest receptor selectivity.

Protein kinase inhibitors

            Most signal transduction pathways are mediated by protein kinases regulating every

            aspect of cell function. Since cancer is recognised to be caused by mutation and

            aberrant expression of critical genes, protein kinase inhibitors have become the focus

            of development of new therapies for cancer.

            1. In this example, 61 is 100 times more potent than 57. It therefore shows how, by

            increasing the concentration of fluorine in the portion of the substrate which is in

            intimate contact with the kinase’s active site increases the effectiveness of the

            therapeutic agent.

 And therefore, F in medicinal chemistry…...

             2. Fluorine will continue to play an important role in the developing areas of medicinal

            chemistry due to its attractive properties for inclusion in structure-activity clinical

            screens.

 

Artificial blood: an O2 transport substitute

            1. Haemoglobin, one of the main components of blood, is responsible

            for O2 transport in tissues and cells.

            2. ALKYLFLUORIDES AND PERFLUORINATED ETHERS

            HAVE DEMONSTRATED REMAKABLE O2 UPTAKE.

            Loss of blood due to injury or major surgery can be a serious

            problem in situations where human blood is scarce or absent such

            as in emerging countries, during epidemics or in mass-surgeries

            (war time).

 

Per fluorocarbons as artificial blood

             1. Per fluorocarbons from 6 –10 carbons in length are used as “artificial blood” for the

            treatment of heart attacks and other vascular obstructions as well as adjutants in

            coronary angioplasty.

            2. The per fluorocarbons are kept in an aqueous solution by means of emulsifiers and

            tetra-alkyl ammonium salts; their concentrations range from 0,5 – 2 g/dl

            3. The concentration of the per fluorocarbon in the aqueous solution ranges from 5 – 10

            g/dl.

 Perfluorodecalin: a …bloody special fluorocarbon!

            made up of atoms of carbon, fluorine, and/or sulphur.

            1. liquids are clear, colourless, odourless, non-conducting, and non-flammable.

            2. approximately twice as dense as water, and are capable of dissolving large amounts of

            gases mainly oxygen and carbon dioxide.

            3. chemically stable compounds that are not metabolized in body tissues.

            4. Require a high FIO2 to maintain high oxygen concentrations within the fluid. It is only

            the carrier of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

            5. Capable of carrying five times more oxygen than haemoglobin.

Perfluoroethers and perfluoropolyethers as artificial blood

            1. Due their grater chain mobility and also due to their greater chemical affinity for

            perfluoroethers and perfluoropolyethers O2 are more efficient in delivering

            “acceptable” (quantities not disclosed) concentrations of O2 both in laboratory

            animals and clinical testing on humans.

            2. Furthermore, due to their greater solubility in aqueous solutions, perfluoroethers and

            perfluoropolyethers don’t require emulsifiers thus simplifying the “artificial blood”

            composition.

            3. A specific experimental example developed by the ASP school coordinated by Prof.

            Walter Navarrini of this Polytechnical Institute is CF3OCF2CF2OCF3 (b.p. = 20°C).

  

Other fluorine-containing drugs

            It has been shown that fluorinated analogues of naturally occurring biologically active compounds

            including amino acids, often exhibit unique physiological activity. Fluorination of natural hormones can lead to molecules with new pharmacokinetic and/or pharmacodynamic properties. For example        the introduction of fluorine into corticosteroids has a dramatic effect on their metabolism (Bush and       Mahesh 1964). Because the metabolism of steroid hormones is very important for their physiological activities, the exchange of a hydrogen atom under fluorine atom can be very meaningful. Also other    endogenous compounds markedly exchange their biological properties, if one or more fluorine atoms         are installed into their molecule. For example, the potent platelet aggregating agent thromboxane        A2 has a half-life in vivo of only 32 seconds.

             Incorporation of two fluorine atoms into the oxetane ring of thromboxane A2 reduces the rate of    carbonium ion formation and acid hydrolysis, so that 7,7-difluoro-thromboxane A2 has a rate of   hydrolysis 108-fold slower than the natural substance (Fried et al. 1984). Likewise prostacyclin,        which is an inhibitor of platelet aggregation, has a very short biological half-life. Fluorination      improves the stability of the molecule toward acid hydrolysis and the stability in organisms. Thus   10,10-difluoro-13-dehydroprostacyclin exhibits a half-life 150 times, and has equal potency to, the           natural compound (Fried et al. 1980). Cerivastatin, a fluorinated drug from the statin class, which           had caused deaths and serious   adverse  health effects was withdrawn from the market in 2001 (           Furberg and Pitt 2001). It had been linked to at least 31 deaths. Cerivastatin also induced muscle destruction (rhabdomyolysis) and displayed compounded toxicity when used with other drugs.

 





By: kalyan kumar dhar

Organic skin care products from many companies are said to contain all organic materials. What they fail to mention to consumers, however, is that this is not necessarily the case and it shows in the quality and effectiveness of their products. Many of these so-called natural products have lost a large portion of their usefulness before the bottle is ever opened. A new natural skin care line is available that has a longer shelf life and an increased ability to treat various skin afflictions thanks to the development of a new skin care technology known as ‘Ionic Chemistry.’

What Is Wrong With Traditional Organic Skin Care Lines

Almost all organic skin formulas on the market today state that they made from completely natural products, without mentioning the man made materials they add to their products and the consequences of including them to their products. These formulas start to lose their effective properties almost instantly. The look, feel, and smell of these solutions begin to decline along with their effectiveness turning them into nothing more than a perfumed emulsion.

In order to prevent this from happening, skin care manufacturers add chemicals called parabens to their formulas. This does help to maintain their overall makeup, but it is not without a price. These chemically engineered additives attach themselves directly on to the active ingredients found in these solutions, which in turn, reduces the benefits of using the product in the first place. Even worse, chemical additives such as propylparaben, methylparaben, and other chemically engineered additives have been found to have severe consequences on your overall health including diseases such as breast cancer.

The Advantages Of New Organic Skin Care Formulas

There is only one skin care system available today that does not add harmful chemical additives to their formula. It uses the technique known as ‘Ionic Chemistry.’ This method encourages the components of the formula to bond with their ionic mate naturally in order to maximize the effectiveness of their products. The natural bonding process is not only stronger than engineered bonds, but it also encourages each component in the formula to work to its highest potential regardless of the skin type they are used on.

Instead of using substances such as paraben like other organic skin care companies, the new technique of ionic chemistry uses fresh, natural ingredients to the fullest advantage. The distinctive qualities of this new method work perfectly on their own without the addition of harmful chemicals such as binders or thickeners. As an alternative, these new beauty products use phytochemicals, photonutrients, and antioxidants found naturally in the ingredients to promote healthy skin.

This unique method of bonding has made these skin care formulas superior to traditional beauty products. Thanks to the use of ingredients that are both natural and fresh, these products have superior anti-aging and preventative properties. They also balance out the oil levels on the skin while treating skin conditions such as rosacea, acne, and even deforming marks such as scars. To enrich the benefits of these products even further, the formulas can be tailored to meet the needs of any skin type.

Beauty products with the word ‘organic’ on the label have become extremely popular because they are believed to be an easy way to achieve healthy looking skin without the fear of side effects. Unfortunately, this has been completely false until the emergence of the new formula. The ionic chemistry utilized by these products not only extends the life of these formulas, but they have been found to be considerably more effective than typical organic skin care products without the danger of using harsh chemicals.





By: Kent Campbell

What does ‘natural’ and ‘organic’ mean on a cosmetic label?

Nowhere do the terms “natural” or “organic” take a more gratuitous bruising than the cosmetics industry! Here we hope to clarify some basic differences between Miessence and others….

Miessence definition of natural:

“Existing in, or formed by nature; not artificial.”

Commercial definition of natural: “Any ingredient “derived from” a natural substance.”

Explanation: We often see long chemical names followed by the phrase “derived from coconut oil”. For example, to create cocamide DEA from coconut oil requires the use of a carcinogenic synthetic chemical (diethanolamine - DEA). It is therefore no longer natural (or safe). To insinuate that it is a natural substance by adding the phrase “derived from coconut oil” is deceitful. Just because vodka can be made from potatoes, doesn’t mean it’s good for you!

Miessence definition of organic:

“Grown, cultivated and stored without the use of chemicals, herbicides, pesticides, fumigants and other toxins.”

Commercial definition of organic: “Any compound containing carbon.”

Explanation: The organic chemistry definition of organic, is any compound containing carbon. Carbon is found in anything that has ever lived. So, by using this definition of organic we could say that the toxic petrochemical preservative, methyl paraben is “organic” because it was formed by leaves that rotted over thousands of years to become the crude oil used to make this toxic preservative.





By: Sarah Liddle

Teachers looking for an outstanding experience when they take their students to New York City won’t want to miss the Liberty Science Center, located in nearby Jersey City, New Jersey.

With a rich assortment of educational experiences inside, students will be talking about their trip for years to come.

From the minute they step inside one of the state-of-the-art laboratories, students will begin a hands-on learning experience led by knowledgeable science educators. Inquiry-based investigations facilitate comprehension of sometimes complex subject matter, with subjects ranging from native wildlife to chemistry to watersheds to the properties of light and many other areas of science.

One option is to take a comprehensive look at an exhibition gallery in great depth with a science educator, reinforcing the exploration through a hands-on lesson related to the exhibition, have the time to ask and have questions answered.

In the middle of one of the most densely populated areas in the world lies an ecological haven known as Liberty State Park. Teachers and students can go out in the field, where they’ll learn about the plants, animals, habitats and geology of the Hudson River Estuary, as well as the impact of humans on the river, all with a choice of land-based or on-the river experiences.

In “Live From . . .” the Liberty Science Center brings teachers and students the thrill of real-time interactive videoconferencing with a series of hospital surgical suites, featuring cardiac, neurosurgery, kidney transplant and robotic surgery experiences. Students get to witness firsthand the sights and sounds of surgery and benefit from having a surgical team of doctors, nurses, technicians and physician assistants answer their questions, even while they are doing their jobs.

Students watch the surgery on a large screen in the Liberty Science Center’s interactive theater, with staff educators facilitating the experience of learning about surgical procedures, the equipment and devices used, education paths leading to careers in medical professions and healthy lifestyle choices.

In Partners in Science, students at the Liberty Science Center go beyond textbooks and school-based labs by immersing themselves in authentic scientific research conducted by professional scientists. The intensive, eight-week summer experience for high school juniors and seniors pairs students with mentor scientists and challenges them to participate in on-going research and independent projects. Through Partners in Science, students are exposed to current questions driving scientific discovery in real laboratory settings. They also develop a network of advisors and lifelong connections that help them identify and focus their career goals.

People live in them, work in them, and stare at them. They’re skyscrapers and they’re an integral part of our lives and community. As works of art and expressions of human aspiration, they inspire, drawing us to understanding, making skyscrapers a perfect teaching point.

The Liberty Science Center’s 12,800-square-foot Skyscraper! Achievement and Impact exhibit is the most comprehensive single exhibition ever presented on the topic. With multimedia, full-body kinetic experiences and experiment-based lab stations, visitors will learn about the planning, design, engineering and construction plus explore the environments that are created and changed when massive buildings go up.

Several additional displays offer students great opportunities to explore various aspects of science, all in a spirit of learning by touching.

Among the exhibits to look forward to:

Infection Connection: Where students explore interactions between microbes and humans, learn about emerging diseases, and see how science develops tools and technologies to prevent and treat them. They can even conduct microbiology and epidemiology experiments in a laboratory environment.

Communication: How people communicate, not only with advanced multimedia and personal communication devices, but with our bodies, language and symbolism.

Our Hudson Home: A hands-on learning experience that highlights the balance required for commerce, recreation and environmental preservation to co-exist in everyday life.

Eat and Be Eaten: Filled with scores of live animals, visitors understand and explore the complex interaction that has been elegantly called the “circle of life.”

Breakthroughs: A fitting exhibition for our fast-changing world; an interactive, multimedia experience featuring exhibits and programs that address current issues and events in science and technology.

Energy Quest: Students take a journey through the five major sources of Earth’s energy, learning about the many methods humans have used to explore and harness these energy sources.





By: Ann Knapp

‘Twas the night before Christmas,

The lab was quite still;

Not a Bunsen was burning

(Nor had they the will).

The test tubes were placed

In their racks with great care,

In hopes Father Chemistry

Soon would be there.

The students were sleeping

So sound in their dorms,

All dreaming of fluids

And Crystalline forms.

Lab-Aids in their aprons

And I in my smock.

When outside the lab

There arose such a roar

I leaped from my stool

And fell flat on the floor.

Out ot the fire escape

All of us flew.

What was the commotion?

Not one of knew.

The flood-lights shone out

O’re the campus so bright

It looked like old Stockholm

On Nobel Prize Night.

My fume-blinded eyes

Then viewed (dare I say?)

Eight anions pulling

A water-trough sleigh.

And holding the bonds

Tied to each one of them

Was a figure I knew

As our own Papa Chem.

With speeds in excess

Of most X-rays they came.

As they Dopplered along

He called each one by name.

“Now Nitrite, now Phosphate,

Now Borate, now Chloride

On Citrate, on Bromate,

On Sulfite and Oxide.

Forget what you know

Of that randomness stuff,

Let’s go straight to that roof,

If you’ve quanta enough.”

As fluids Bernoullian

Behave in a pinch,

Those ions said “Alchemist

This is a cinch.”

So up to the lab-roof

Those “chargers” they sped

With Pop Chemistry safe

In his water-trough sled.

Just a microsec later

Electroscopes showed

Charged particles coming

To our lab abode

We raced back inside,

And what d’ya think?

Down the fume-hood Pop Chem fell,

Right into the sink.

He was dressed in a lab-coat,

Quite ragged and old,

With removable buttons

(The style, we’re told)

A tray-full of beakers

He clutched to his heart–

And under his arm

Was an orbital chart.

His eyes through his goggles

I just couldn’t see

His hands were all yellow

From H-N-O-3.

His head was quite bald

With a fringe all around

Like a ring test for iron,

That same shade of brown.

He puffed a cigar

With a smell not at all

Unlike the organic lab

Right down the hall.

The smoke billowed forth

From his angular face

And with Brownian Movement

Enveloped the place.

He was thin as a match

And not terribly tall

He wasn’t the type

I’d expected at all

But a look at his clothes,

In the lab’s harsh white light,

With their acid-burn holes–

He’s a chemist all right!

He didn’t say much

(He had no time to kill)

And filled all the test tubes

With nary a spill.

Then placing them bak

On the benches with care

He dashed to the fume-hood

And rose through the air.

He called to his team

And his ions took off

And kinetics took care

Of Pop Chem and his trough,

But I heard him cry out

As he flew down the street

“Merry Holidays to all!

May your stockrooms stay neat!”





By: johny sastro

We have long used the word chemistry to describe how well two people get along in the wild world of dating. Little did we know how accurate the use of that word was. Scientists are now making daily advances as they work at cracking the code of sexual chemistry and attraction. Some of the recent findings and products created based on them are astonishing.

Recent findings indicate that humans produce very powerful chemical substances known as pheromones. The chemical tricksters can not be seen, felt, or tasted, heard, or smelled, yet they have the power to make people react in certain ways. There is a small organ inside the nose that has, until recently, not been found to serve any useful purpose. This organ, called the vomeronasal organ, has been shown to process pheromones and stimulate the limbic region of the brain, causing specific emotional and physical responses. This discovery by scientists has helped in uncovering the code of sexual chemistry and attraction.

Dr. Virgil Amend has been studying the effects of human pheromones for many years. He recently introduced a topical mixture of human pheromones for men that have been proven to have very powerful effects on women. Using this mixture of pheromones increases the sexual attraction women feel toward a man by several degrees, making it more likely that they will respond favourably to his attention.

It has been suggested that one of the many reasons men and women do not have as much chemistry between them as they once seemed to, is that many of the pheromones that are normally produced in the body are washed away by frequent bathing or overpowered by scented soaps and laundry detergents, perfumes, and colognes. These substances seem to mask normal levels of pheromones.

Work continues on the project of cracking the code of sexual chemistry and attraction. Pheromones seem to be the largest key to unlocking the secrets of why people are attracted to one another sexually.

If you would like to learn the code of sexual chemistry and attraction, and the art of seducing beautiful women, then visit my website and get your hands on my free report that has changed the dating life of thousands of men and turned them into dating kings.





By: Mark Taylor

Hoodia swept the nation by storm when Leslie Stahl and her crew traveled to South Africa to determine whether a little succulent plant could actually suppress appetite for days at a time, with virtually no side effects. Leslie tried it personally. She stated she experienced absolutely no hunger the entire day, nor any thirst. Furthermore, she did not have the jitters the following day, and did not experience any unpleasant side-effects that are so common with today’s diet pills.

Ms. Stahl was following the lead on a story that first reached Europe in 1937, when a Dutch anthropologist observed the San Bushmen eating the leaves of this cactus-like plant before embarking upon a hunting trek. For two days these Bushmen traveled over a hot and pitiless desert, without the aid of food or water. For nearly thirty years, little interest, if any, was shown in the tiny plant. During that era, pharmaceutical companies were busy creating potent drugs in chemical labs, that had very little to do with organic chemistry.

In 1963, scientists began re-examining Hoodia and by 1995 had isolated what they consider the active component, P-57. P-57 is said to be a steroidal glucose that attaches itself to that portion of the brain that controls hunger. The mechanics of how it suppresses appetite are still unknown. I spite of the fact that the pharmaceutical company, Phytopharm, (the original company attempting to develop a Hoodia diet drug), sub-licensed its research and development rights to Pfizer in 1998, no diet drugs were produced. In fact, Pfizer eventually lost interest and reassigned its rights back to Phytopharm, who is now working with Unilever on the project.

It will be interesting to see where all this leads. Hoodia is a protected species in South Africa and, since it takes five years to mature, is not likely to become an agricultural export. However, there are many in the field of herbology who would like to encourage South Africa to do just that. Herbologists think that isolating a single component from a plant and expecting it to proffer sustainable benefits would be like asking a human body to live on water alone. The synergistic properties of Hoodia offer the bushmen freedom from hunger and increased stamina, to ensure a successful hunt.

Meanwhile, the U.S. has created such a high demand for the product that purchasing Hoodia-based products that are genuine is not an easy task. Every single web page offering Hoodia claimed that its product was the genuine article. Logically, a product in such high demand, carries with it the opportunity to provide much-needed income for South Africans. Actually, cultivating a plant with an extended mature date is not unheard of. Aloe Vera requires seven years growth before the juice is suitable as an ingestible juice or a burn aid product. Aloe Vera, by the way, is another plant whose properties have been un-replicable in the laboratory.





By: Jim Mackey