Chemical kinematics is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of reaction rates or even speed of reaction and their mechanics. The kinetic studies not only help us to determine the reaction rates but also does describe the conditions by which the reaction rates can be altered. Besides this the mechanism governing the reactions could also be predicted on the basis of logical kinetic data.

During the course of study we all come across a wide variety of chemical reactions having different rates. In thermodynamics we studied that the decrease in free energy is quite helpful in predicting the feasibility of chemical reactions. However, knowledge of free energy change of reaction does not give us any idea about the speed or rate of the reaction.

So, depending upon the reaction rates, various reactions can be categorized into three types as very fast, very slow or moderately slow. Very fast reaction’s are those which occur almost instantaneously like precipitation of silver chloride which occur instantaneously by simply adding aqueous solution of sodium chloride to aqueous solution of silver nitrate. The rates of such reactions cannot be determined easily. The obvious reason for a very fast rate of such reaction is that no chemical bonds are to be broken among the reactants.

Very slow reactions comprises reactions which occur at a very slow rate. These reactions may require month or even years together for their completion like rusting of iron. The rates of such reactions are hardly of any physical importance. Moderately slow reactions refer to reactions in between very fast type and very slow type reactions. These reactions proceed at moderate speed which can be easily measured. Inversion of cane sugar and hydrolysis of starch are common examples of this type of reactions.

The rate of a chemical reaction can also be determined as the speed or velocity with which a reaction takes place. It can be expressed qualitatively as well as quantitatively. The qualitative rate is based on certain visual parameters like disappearance of reactants, color change, effervescence, etc. the rate expressed as such provides arbitrary conclusions about the rate of a reaction. Quantitative rate of a chemical reaction provides with much better information about the rate data and the accurate rate of a reaction. Quantitatively, the rate of chemical reaction may be expressed as the rate of decrease in concentration of any one of the reactants or the rate of increase in concentration of any one of the products. Thus the reactions may  be involving same stoichiometric coefficients of all the reactants and products like in the case of reaction between nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide, as the reactants and products appear in the same stoichiometric proportions. So the rate of the reaction may be expressed in terms of rate of disappearance of nitrogen dioxide or carbon monoxide or alternatively, by the rate of appearance of carbon dioxide or nitric oxide which ever may be convenient. In this case the rate of reaction can be followed easily by simply measuring the change in intensity of color.

If the reactants and products have different stoichiometric coefficients, this means that for every mole of the reactants reacting we get two moles of the products. So the rate of formation of the products will be twice the rate of disappearance of the reactants. So, in order to avoid the difference in the two rates, i.e., to get a unique value of the reaction rate irrespective of the species selected, we simply divide the rate of change of concentration by the stoichiometric coefficient of reactant or product that are involved in the chemical reaction.





By: lalit sharma

‘Twas the night before Christmas,

The lab was quite still;

Not a Bunsen was burning

(Nor had they the will).

The test tubes were placed

In their racks with great care,

In hopes Father Chemistry

Soon would be there.

The students were sleeping

So sound in their dorms,

All dreaming of fluids

And Crystalline forms.

Lab-Aids in their aprons

And I in my smock.

When outside the lab

There arose such a roar

I leaped from my stool

And fell flat on the floor.

Out ot the fire escape

All of us flew.

What was the commotion?

Not one of knew.

The flood-lights shone out

O’re the campus so bright

It looked like old Stockholm

On Nobel Prize Night.

My fume-blinded eyes

Then viewed (dare I say?)

Eight anions pulling

A water-trough sleigh.

And holding the bonds

Tied to each one of them

Was a figure I knew

As our own Papa Chem.

With speeds in excess

Of most X-rays they came.

As they Dopplered along

He called each one by name.

“Now Nitrite, now Phosphate,

Now Borate, now Chloride

On Citrate, on Bromate,

On Sulfite and Oxide.

Forget what you know

Of that randomness stuff,

Let’s go straight to that roof,

If you’ve quanta enough.”

As fluids Bernoullian

Behave in a pinch,

Those ions said “Alchemist

This is a cinch.”

So up to the lab-roof

Those “chargers” they sped

With Pop Chemistry safe

In his water-trough sled.

Just a microsec later

Electroscopes showed

Charged particles coming

To our lab abode

We raced back inside,

And what d’ya think?

Down the fume-hood Pop Chem fell,

Right into the sink.

He was dressed in a lab-coat,

Quite ragged and old,

With removable buttons

(The style, we’re told)

A tray-full of beakers

He clutched to his heart–

And under his arm

Was an orbital chart.

His eyes through his goggles

I just couldn’t see

His hands were all yellow

From H-N-O-3.

His head was quite bald

With a fringe all around

Like a ring test for iron,

That same shade of brown.

He puffed a cigar

With a smell not at all

Unlike the organic lab

Right down the hall.

The smoke billowed forth

From his angular face

And with Brownian Movement

Enveloped the place.

He was thin as a match

And not terribly tall

He wasn’t the type

I’d expected at all

But a look at his clothes,

In the lab’s harsh white light,

With their acid-burn holes–

He’s a chemist all right!

He didn’t say much

(He had no time to kill)

And filled all the test tubes

With nary a spill.

Then placing them bak

On the benches with care

He dashed to the fume-hood

And rose through the air.

He called to his team

And his ions took off

And kinetics took care

Of Pop Chem and his trough,

But I heard him cry out

As he flew down the street

“Merry Holidays to all!

May your stockrooms stay neat!”





By: johny sastro

Many people are unaware that beautiful hair is due largely to their intake of silica. Silica is a form of silicon, one of the most common elements in the earth, and that is literally where it is most found: in the earth. Most forms of stones and rock contain silicon in one form or another.

Silica is silicon in the form of Silicon dioxide, or SiO2. Appearing naturally as quartz, it is also the principal component of glass and sand. Silica is also a very common component of your body, and is contains in all of your connective tissues such as cartilage and tendons, nails, hair, muscle tissue and bone. Your complexion and shiny hair all depend upon silica, which apart from its other properties help your skin and hair to retain moisture and keep looking young.

Not only that, however, but it also strengthens your hair, and renders it less likely to become brittle and suffer from split ends and that dull look that so many women spend a fortune on trying to overcome with various types of hair conditioner. Conditioners are designed to keep the moisture in your hair; that is also one of the main properties of the form of silicon that we call silica. The term is often wrongly used for other forms of silicon such as silicates and silicones, although these do not take part in human biochemistry in the same way as silica does.

If your intake of silica is at its optimum, your skin and hair will be well hydrated, and maintain a luster that makes it attractive and young looking, rather than lank of frizzy. It is not an overnight effect, however, and you may have to take silica supplements for two or three months until you see visible effects. You should then be able to maintain the effects through diet, although silica supplements can be used if preferred. It is not only your hair that will benefit, but also your skin, as already suggested, will maintain a youthful hydrated look and the wrinkles will take longer to appear.

You will therefore tend to look younger for longer, especially if you also have a good intake of antioxidants to prevent free radical damage to your skin cells. Silica can help to prevent baldness, but it is stressed that it cannot be taken to cure it. It stimulates the growth of your hair and keeps it healthy and strong in addition to looking more beautiful and attractive.

Silica in all its forms is a trace mineral in our diets, and is a relatively rare component. It is also a very important mineral because human life depends upon it. There are certain food sources of silica that you can use to ensure that you get the maximum amount naturally that you can. The foods that contain most silica include cereals, especially oats and rice, which is why Asians tend to have the healthiest and strongest hair. Others are cucumbers, asparagus, lettuce cabbage, onions, potatoes and sunflower seeds. Fruits include strawberries, and if you eat a diet rich in these various foods, then you should have a good natural intake.

Other sources of silica include horsetail and oat straw, or the stalks left once the oats have been harvested. Although not conventionally eaten, these sources are used for the preparation of silica supplements. It has often been claimed that beer is a good source, but only because silica is frequently used in fine powder form to act a defoamer in beer.

Meat sources do not include much silica, and neither do processed foods. Most junk food diets are low in this mineral that is so vital for the condition of your hair, although it is not necessary to eat just a vegetarian diet. A good balanced diet is necessary to ensure that you do not become deficient in one nutrient because you are trying to increase your intake of another. That is a very easy and common error to make. If you include a reasonable amount of silica-containing foods in your diet then there is no need to eat only those foods.

As with many other trace elements necessary in human biochemistry, you do not have to take large amounts of silica to meet your daily needs, and it is not the foods that are rich in silica that is the only aspect of the mineral you should consider, but also in the form in which it is available for the body to use. This ‘bioavailability’ is very important with all forms of nutrition, not only silica, since if the body is unable to use it as part of its biochemistry, then it is of no use as a supplement.

As an example of this, the processing of foods, including grains, can convert silica to silicates that the body cannot use since its chemistry is unsuitable. Silicates have to be converted first to silicic acid which the human body can easily absorb through the intestines. This acid, then, would be a good supplement for those deficient in silica, though only very small amounts are needed by the body. In fact, silicic acid is the silica gel supplement that provides the silica needed for healthy hair, and is formed by the hydration of sodium silicate which itself cannot be absorbed by the intestines and take part in the human biochemical reactions needed.

The reason for the importance of silica is that it is converted to orthosilicic acid that is an essential part of the biochemical pathway for the formation and stabilization of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) or mucopolysaccharides, that are essential to human life. Chondroitin sulfate is an example of a GAG. As one ages, ones ability to produce these compounds in the stomach reduces, and is one reason for aging skin and hair.

The effect of silica in the human body in general, and on the hair in particular, has been proved, and as you age you will find the need for some form of supplementation. Even younger people who do not include an adequate quota of silica in their diet should consider a supplement containing this little known but essential trace element for bouncy, attractive and youthful hair.

It is known fact that beautiful hair comes from within with silica.





By: Darrell Miller

L-Alanine is one of 20 amino acids that are used by the body to manufacture the proteins essential for life. Each protein possesses specific biological properties that are imparted by the sequence of amino acids it contains. Proteins control the chemistry that takes place within the cells of our body, and comprise all of the enzymes that catalyze the body’s biochemistry.

Amino acids are also the building blocks of DNA that determines the genetic make-up of individuals, and that also provides recipes or templates for the production of proteins from amino acid sequences. There is a different DNA template for every protein required by the body that determines which of the 20 amino acids are needed, and in what order they are to be combined with one another to manufacture the desired protein.

10 of these 20 amino acids can be synthesized by your body’s biochemistry, the other 10 being essential parts of your diet. If you fail to include just of these 10, then your body will break down its proteins until it has obtained a sufficient supply of that amino acids for its needs. That involves muscle and other tissue degradation, and is one of the symptoms of malnutrition. Amino acids are not stored, and a daily supply is essential to avoid these symptoms.

L-Alanine is one of the ten that the body can manufacture, and used by the body to help build protein and also to enable the body to make use of glucose to generate energy. It does so as part of what is known as the glucose-alanine cycle. During anaerobic exercise, such as in weightlifting and sustained running, muscles produce lactate and also alanine.

The alanine is passed on to the liver where it is converted to energy via its conversion to glucose. This is not a particularly efficient means of creating energy because a byproduct of the process is urea, the removal of which in turn requires energy. However, it serves its purpose as an energy source once the liver is depleted of glycogen. In fact that is the major use to which alanine appears to be put by the body: the conversion of glucose to energy.

The way the glucose-alanine cycle works is that a process known as transamination produces glutamate from the amino groups of amino acids that are degraded during exercise. Glutamate is then converted to pyruvate by means of the enzyme alanine aminotransferase, with the production of alanine and alpha-ketoglutarate. This is a reversible reaction, and after the alanine has been carried by the bloodstream to the liver, the reaction reverses with the regeneration of pyruvate that undergoes gluconeogenesis (generation of glucose).

The result of this is glucose that returns to the muscle tissue to provide more energy. The glutamate is broken down to the ammonium ion in the mitochondria, which in turn enters the urea cycle with the production of urea.

In a nutshell, then, the glucose-alanine cycle removes glutamate and pyruvate from muscle tissue to the liver where glucose is generated from the pyruvate and returned to the muscle. Since gluconeogenesis involves the expenditure of energy, and this occurs in the liver rather than in the muscle, all the energy in the muscle can be used for muscle contraction.

L-Alanine possesses other properties, among them the ability to help maintain the health of the prostate. A study of benign prostatic hyperplasia (enlarged prostate) indicated that treatment with L-alanine, glutamic acid and glycine over a period of three months reduced the symptoms. However, make sure that you consult your physician before using alanine in this way. This is not because there are any known adverse side effects, because there are not, but because it I always wise to so with any supplement taken with a view to treating any medical condition.

A less obvious application derives from the fact that it forms a stable free radical when deaminated. Deamination can be initiated by radiation, and so the concentration of this free radical can be measured to ensure that the correct dose of radiation is being given in dosimetric radiotherapy. It is not always easy to control the dose accurately, and this property of alanine allows it to monitored and to ensure that it is neither too low to have the desired effect, nor dangerously high.

Although it is a non-essential amino acid, and can be produced by the body, a dietary supply or supplement is advantageous if extra energy is required. Good dietary sources of L-alanine include meats, seafood, eggs, nuts, beans, seeds, brewer’s yeast, corn and legumes among others. Supplements are also available, and useful for body-builders, weightlifters and others involved in anaerobic exercise. Due to the glucose-alanine cycle, it can possibly provide energy when lactate build-up would otherwise lead to muscle cramps.

Those for whom a supplement could be useful are athletes and others who are trying to build muscle and stamina, or reduce their body fat and also the obese and overweight for the same reason. There is also evidence that a combination of the amino acids alanine, glycine and arginine can help to reduce arterial plaque from oxidized low density lipoproteins, and can also help to reduce high blood pressure.

Deficiencies are rare, although groups that do not eat meat should be careful to eat foods with a good alanine content. There are no known side effects of a deficiency since the body will generate what is needed for normal purposes, and while the supplement appears to have no side effects, it is advisable that pregnant and lactating women should first seek medical advice. The same applies if you suffer from hypertension or diabetes. High doses of alanine might also affect those with kidney or liver disease.

Although the benefits of supplementation of L-alanine might not be immediately obvious, the results and the science indicate that it is effective in making better use of blood glucose in that the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) created in the muscle tissue is allowed to be expended on muscle contraction while the glucose-alanine cycle provides the energy needed for gluconeogenesis.





By: Darrell Miller

What about Biology and Chemistry together? I’m trying to decide which two to do at the same time.



By: Melody

I’m studying for my chemistry mid-term (yea, exams AFTER winter break) and I can’t find it in my textbook and my teacher won’t explain it. All help is appreciated


By: melfy202

We have long used the word chemistry to describe how well two people get along in the wild world of dating. Little did we know how accurate the use of that word was. Scientists are now making daily advances as they work at cracking the code of sexual chemistry and attraction. Some of the recent findings and products created based on them are astonishing.

Recent findings indicate that humans produce very powerful chemical substances known as pheromones. The chemical tricksters can not be seen, felt, or tasted, heard, or smelled, yet they have the power to make people react in certain ways. There is a small organ inside the nose that has, until recently, not been found to serve any useful purpose. This organ, called the vomeronasal organ, has been shown to process pheromones and stimulate the limbic region of the brain, causing specific emotional and physical responses. This discovery by scientists has helped in uncovering the code of sexual chemistry and attraction.

Dr. Virgil Amend has been studying the effects of human pheromones for many years. He recently introduced a topical mixture of human pheromones for men that have been proven to have very powerful effects on women. Using this mixture of pheromones increases the sexual attraction women feel toward a man by several degrees, making it more likely that they will respond favourably to his attention.

It has been suggested that one of the many reasons men and women do not have as much chemistry between them as they once seemed to, is that many of the pheromones that are normally produced in the body are washed away by frequent bathing or overpowered by scented soaps and laundry detergents, perfumes, and colognes. These substances seem to mask normal levels of pheromones.

Work continues on the project of cracking the code of sexual chemistry and attraction. Pheromones seem to be the largest key to unlocking the secrets of why people are attracted to one another sexually.

If you would like to learn the code of sexual chemistry and attraction, and the art of seducing beautiful women, then visit my website and get your hands on my free report that has changed the dating life of thousands of men and turned them into dating kings.





By: Mark Taylor

Herbs are the most exciting topic emerging in the health and wellness field today.  Until now what was once the “go to” solution for all things medical and healthy aging has been relegated to the annals of history.  There is a reawakening to the error of our ways in 20th Century medicine.  I encourage all who read this article to stand guard to your health and longevity by looking deeper into the secrets of human biochemistry and its relationship with what I call “Natures Pharmacy”, the plant kingdom.  It is here that we, as a species, can find solutions to all ailments, diseases, infections, and longevity issues.  The sad fact is that, through a very aggressive 100 year long marketing campaign by the modern day pharmaceutical industry, we have forgotten where we came from and have paid a heavy price for it.

 

We are borne of the earth just as we return to the earth.  Everything the human organism needs, and has always needed, can be found in nature.  What most people aren’t aware of is that, at the turn of the 20th Century, discoveries in the plant kingdom led to the isolation of certain plant compounds that had medicinal properties that could be profitable when engineered in a laboratory.  Plants can’t be patented but synthetic compounds can.  This was the birth of the modern day pharmaceutical industry.  The level of toxicity and damage to the liver and immune system that occurs with medicinal drug treatment has led to a long awaited reawakening in the search for truth in the design of the human health profile.  People are now demanding an alternative way to address maladies in the human body.  How exciting!  The most powerful thing that ever happens in time is “an idea whose time has come”.

 

We seem to be slowly creeping back toward the times where the Romans, Persians, Hebrews, Egyptians, and Native Americans relied on Mother Nature to battle disease and illness.  Naturopathic medicine, homeopathic medicine, and the desire for herbs and herbal remedies are driving the truth back to mainstream awareness in the United States.  80% of the world still relies on herbal remedies and tonics to deal with health and disease issues.  From their point of view we are crazy to forego solutions, provided by nature, and resort to toxic substances that always have a negative impact on human biochemistry.  With the reawakening of medicinal herbs as a natural solution healing and maintaining a healthy profile, we are relearning that herbs can be used to treat and cure conditions such as gall bladder disease prostate cancer, leukemia, toxic buildup in the body.  They can also be used as an anti-inflammatory, muscle relaxant, liver function normalizer, and more.

 

Herbs perform one of two functions; either as a “tonic” or as a “stimulator”.  Tonics are relatively gentle in their affect on the human body and can, over time, slowly strengthen weakening immune systems and are beneficial for nourishment of the body in general.  Herbs that should be a daily part of your diet include green tea, dandelion, Echinacea, milk thistle, ginger, cayenne pepper, garlic, and rosemary to name a few.  Stimulators are herbs that are taken for shorter periods of time and act to initiate strong healing processes for certain maladies.  Example of these herbs include peppermint leaf, cramp bark, barberry bark, catnip, aloe vera, and ginger root to name a few.  When purchasing such herbs purchase organic herbs whenever possible as these herbs, as opposed to bulk herbs, are usually more nutrient dense, contain no chemical fertilizers or pesticides, and typically are grown locally.

 

All in all we are, as a society, are beginning to look in the right direction for alternative solutions to health, wellness, and longevity.  Pick up a copy of any book on medicinal or therapeutic herbs from any bookstore and learn how to find herbs that can easily be implemented in your daily eating or cooking routine and bring yourself back to your roots.

Are you interested in receiving a free customized health analysis and anti-aging report?  By going to the website you will gain first access to the most powerful Anti-Aging drink on the market “AgelessXtra”.  Go to http://naturalcellrenewal.com, pickup up this valuable information while gaining access to the newest Health Drink and Energy Drink AgelessXtra.





By: Scott A McKay

I’ve taken a daily multi-vitamin for most of my adult years, especially when we were living overseas.

First I used the hard vitamin tablets until I heard from a Doctor that absorption of those vitamins was especially low. I was taking vitamins, but not much was getting into my system.

So I switched to a liquid vitamin with better absorption rates. While more was getting into my system because of liquidity, the absorption time was still 18 hours from ingestion to reaching my cells, and much of it was still passing out of my body.

Recently I have switched to a new product which is a breakthrough in vitamin absorption and antioxidant power, both at the same time!



How would you feel if you knew that, in addition to this daily regimen of vitamins and minerals, you are also getting a combination of botanicals that power up three more of your antioxidants

Glutathione Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) Catalase

 

IMAGINE IF YOU COULD RIP OFF THE CAP OF A 1 OUNCE POUCH CONTAINER CHOCKED FULL OF GOOD TASTING VITAMINS AND MINERALS



 squeeze all of that into your mouth slosh it around for 30 seconds and swallow

 

Then realize that it is moving directly into your blood stream to your cells to give you the nutrients you need for your day!

But not only that…

With Glutathione being the foremost antioxidant in your body, these 2 additional anti-oxidants work in harmony with Glutathione to

remove toxins, handle inflammation, strengthen your immune system, create more energy, and give you an overall better quality-of-life

 

THIS BREAKTHROUGH IS DUE TO NANO-TECHNOLOGY!   Through the use of Nano-technology applied to nutrition, nano-sized nutrient particles are embedded within purified water clusters.

These water clusters, with the tiny nano-sized nutrients in them, are capable of passing through the bloodstream directly into tissues at the cellular level — bypassing the normal digestive process.

Therefore, all of this nutrition gets into your cells almost immediately — not 18 hours later, if at all!

Dr. Tracy Holdford*, an expert in Nanotechnology, and consultant on this product, said this about the amazing breakthrough:

“This product is one of a few truly cutting-edge products on the market. It is a two-part product with a proven set of botanicals and a sound supply of vitamins and minerals.”

(*Dr. Holdford has degrees in Microbiology, Physics, Inorganic Chemistry, Biochemistry, Environmental Chemistry, and Muscular Therapies, including PhD’s in Inorganic Chemistry, Biochemistry, Theology and Philosophy, and Nuclear Physics.)

So, if you are taking other multi-vitamins why not consider switching to this cutting edge product and get more than simply a multi-vitamin — get a guarantee that your daily vitamin is getting into your system and doing some good.

Also gain the extra advantage of strengthening your anti-oxidants and cell function. All of that in one product.





By: Pat Fenn

This is for my Chemistry Final Exam.



By: Stephano