“How to Study the Entire Organic Chemistry Course in 24 Hours”

– Dr. Wayne Huang

Are you taking organic chemistry course, but tired of the boring textbook or dry lectures? Do you feel a bit uneasy with the upcoming exam?

There is a better and easier way! Your organic chemistry help is on its way. Learn your organic chemistry course visually in 24 hours! But how?

The Rapid Learning Series by Rapid Learning Center is a break-through learning system with scientific teaching method coupling with rich-media visualization and expert narration. In organic chemistry course, it breaks down the entire course into 24 chapters, one chapter at a time, one hour per chapter in total of 24 hours.

Organic Chemistry is all about understanding its core concepts and relating them to problem solving. There are three key learning components in this introductory chemistry rapid learning course:

(1) Core Concept Video Tutorial

(2) Game-based Problem Drill

(3) Super Review Cheatsheet.

In an hourly study of each chapter, it will take 30 minutes for the rich-media video, 20 minutes for the problem drill and 10 minutes for the super review, together 60 minutes for one chapter.

Get your winning edge and master your organic chemistry course in 24 hours with Rapid Learning series.

“Dr. Wayne Huang is a rapid learning coach, who is the co-author of over 10 published books and 100 24-hour rapid courses in chemistry, physics, biology, medicine and mathematics. He is also the founding editor of Chemistry Tips, Physics Tips, Biology Tips and Math Tips, the daily student eZines freely available at http://www.RapidLearningCenter.com, the learning portal of Rapid Learning Inc.”





By: Dr. Wayne Haung

Chemistry is the study of matter and its changes. This includes everything in the universe from a simple hydrogen atom to very large replicating molecules in life processes. Chemistry is involved with the development of medicines that control and cure diseases; food production through specific and safe agricultural chemicals; consumer products such as cleaners, plastics and clothing; new methods of energy production, transfer and storage; new materials for electronic components; and new methods for protection and cleanup of the environment. Chemists are needed to help solve some of society’s most difficult technological problems through research, development and teaching.

A major branch of chemistry, known as ‘Inorganic Chemistry’, is generally considered to embrace all substances except hydrocarbons and their derivatives, or all substances that are not compounds of carbon (including some of the small molecules of carbon.) It covers a broad range of subjects, among which are atomic structure, crystallography, chemical bonding, coordination compounds, acid-base reactions, ceramics, and various  subdivisions of electrochemistry (electrolysis, battery science, corrosion, semi conduction, etc.). It is important to state that inorganic and organic chemistry often overlap. For example, chemical bonding applies to both disciplines, electrochemistry and acid-base reactions have their organic counterparts, catalysts and coordination compounds may be either organic or inorganic.

Regarding the importance of inorganic chemistry, R.T. Sanderson has written: “All chemistry is the science of atoms, involving an understanding of why they possess certain characteristic qualities and why these qualities dictate the behavior of atoms when they come together. All properties of material substances are the inevitable result of the kind of atoms and the manner in which they are attached and assembled. All chemical change involves a rearrangement of atoms. Inorganic chemistry (is) the only discipline within the chemistry that examines specifically the differences among all the different kinds of atoms”.

Another major branch of chemistry is ‘Organic Chemistry’ which embraces all compounds of carbon except such binary compounds as the carbon oxides, the carbides, carbon disulfide, etc.; such ternary compounds as the metallic cyanides, metallic carbonyls, phosgene (COCl2), carbonyl sulfide (COS), etc.; and the metallic carbonates, such as calcium carbonate and sodium carbonate. The total number of organic compounds is indeterminate, but a huge number has been identified and named. Important areas of organic chemistry include polymerization, hydrogenation, Isomerisation, fermentation, photochemistry, and stereochemistry. There is no sharp dividing line between organic and inorganic chemistry, for the two often tend to overlap.

Application of the concepts and laws of physics to chemical phenomena is included under the heading ‘Physical Chemistry’ in order to describe in quantitative (mathematical) terms a vast amount of qualitative (observational) information. A selection of only the most important concepts of physical chemistry would include: the electron wave equation and the quantum mechanical interpretation of atomic and molecular structure, the study of the subatomic fundamental particles of matter, application of thermodynamics to heats of formation of compounds and the heats of chemical reaction, the theory of rate processes and chemical equilibria, orbital theory and chemical bonding, surface chemistry, including catalysis and finely divided particles, the principles of electrochemistry and ionization. Although physical chemistry is closely related to both inorganic and organic chemistry, it is considered a separate discipline.

Analytical Chemistry is the subdivision of chemistry concerned with identification of materials (qualitative analysis) and with determination of the percentage composition of mixtures or the constituents of a pure compound (quantitative analysis). The gravimetric and volumetric (or “wet”) methods (precipitation, titration and solvent extraction) are still used for routine work and new titration methods have been introduced e.g. cryoscopic, pressure-metric (for reactions that produce a gaseous product), redox methods, and use of a F-sensitive electrode etc. However, faster and more accurate techniques (collectively called instrumental) have been developed in the recent past. Among these are infrared, ultraviolet, and x-ray spectroscopy where the presence and amount of a metallic element is indicated by lines in it’s emission or absorption spectrum; colorimetry by which the percentage of a substance in soluble is determined by the intensity of it’s colour; chromatography of various types by which the components of a liquid or gaseous mixture are determined by passing it through a column of porous material or on thin layers of finely divided solids; and separation of mixtures in ion exchange columns and radioactive tracer analysis. Optical and electron microscopy, mass spectrometry, microanalysis, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance (NQR) spectroscopy all fall within the area of analytical chemistry. New and highly sophisticated techniques have been introduced in recent years, in many cases replacing traditional methods.

Originally Biochemistry was a subdivision of chemistry but now an independent science, which includes all aspects of chemistry that apply to living organisms. Thus, photochemistry is directly involved with photosynthesis and physical chemistry with osmosis, two phenomena that underline all plant and animal life. Other important chemical mechanisms that apply directly to living organisms are catalysis, which takes place in biochemical systems by the agency of enzymes; nucleic acid and protein constitution and behavior, which is known to control the mechanism of genetics; colloid chemistry, which deals in part with the nature of cell walls, muscles, collagen, etc; acid-base relations, involved in the pH of body fluids; and such nutritional components as amino acids, fats, carbohydrates, minerals, lipids and vitamins, all of which are essential to life. The chemical organization and reproductive behavior of microorganisms (bacteria and viruses) and a large part of agricultural chemistry are also included in biochemistry. Particularly active areas of biochemistry are nucleic acids, cell surfaces (membranes), enzymology, peptide hormones, molecular biology, and recombinant DNA.

Nuclear Chemistry is the division of chemistry dealing with changes in or transformations of the atomic nucleus. It includes spontaneous and induced radioactivity, the fission or splitting of nuclei, and their fusion, or union; also the properties and behavior of the reaction products and their separation and analysis. The reactions involving nuclei are usually accompanied by large energy changes, far greater than those of chemical reactions; that are carried out in nuclear reactors for electric power production and manufacture of radioactive isotopes for medical use, also (in research work) in cyclotrons.

Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry and chemical engineering that deals with the quantities of substances that enter into, and are produced by, chemical reactions.  Stoichiometry provides the quantitative relationship between reactants and products in a chemical reaction. For example, when methane unites with oxygen in complete combustion, 16g of methane require 64g of oxygen.  At the same time 44g of carbon dioxide and 36g of water are formed as reaction productions. Every chemical reaction has its characteristic proportions.  The method of obtaining these from chemical formulas, equations, atomic weights and molecular weights, and determination of what and how much is used and produced in chemical processes, is the major concern of Stoichiometry.

Many students treat chemistry as “too difficult to understand and prefer to escape and memorize even on the expense of the realization that by doing so they are bound to harm themselves now and deprive the society of their contribution later. Henceforth they should note that although it is somewhat challenging, any reasonably intelligent and dedicated student can succeed in chemistry. They should also realize that there is no use of wasting both money and time for some thing that is either memorized before examination or forgotten thereafter or some portion of it is dropped under the pretext of selection of important topics for the purpose of preparation for examination. One must not waste his/her valuables (money and time) just for the sake of degree and literacy as both of these are bound to have detrimental consequences not only for the individual concerned but also the society for obvious reasons.

Those of the students who get their confidence shattered whenever they come across chemistry may note Some Tips (given below) from tose who have succeeded in Chemistry

Develop good study habits. Attend all lectures and labs. Take all lecture notes and make your own notes after understanding things properly. Use your lecture notes as a guide to your reading in the textbook. Write your questions down if you don’t understand something. Ask your teacher if you don’t understand a concept. Make flash cards of definitions, concepts, reactions, structures, and nomenclature that are in the textbook and are emphasized by your teacher in lecture. Remember that writing something is equivalent to reading it ten times and notes are records for recollecting the material and not something to be memorized in a capsule form. Do all the homework problems sincerely and with sincerity. One of the best ways of learning is to find a study partner or to form a study group and work on problems independently and then together. Keep yourself up –to- date. If you get behind or get a poor grade in class tests, either you want to drop the class or may be made to drop the class. Try to see the ‘big picture; of the future instead of being mean and escapist. Practice applying what you have learned in class to the world around you. Try to foster your own scientific curiosity and wonder around ‘why things are and how they happen’. Have a positive attitude. Realize that science requires more self discipline, but offers more rewards. Try to be organized and recognized. Persevere and be determined to succeed.



By: Dr.Badruddin Khan

Advanced Placement Chemistry (AP Chem) is only one of the 35 Advanced Placement courses (in over 20 different subjects) participated in by over a million gifted, talented, and/or highly motivated students each year.

Each student of AP Chem will become well acquainted, if not completely familiar with a multitude of subject matter including, but not limited to: chemical bonds, chemical reactions, chemical equilibrium, properties and phases of matter and solutions, nuclear chemistry, reaction kinetics, atomic theory, stoichiometry, and thermodynamics.

Successful completion of both a second-year high school algebra course and general chemistry course are recommended as prerequisites prior to taking an AP Chem class. An AP Chem course is the equivalent to a first-year college general chemistry course, including laboratory experience.

Typically, AP courses are taken in preparation for the Advanced Placement Examaminations (AP Exams) taken in May of each year. The two main sections of the AP Chem Exam are currently 6 free-response essay questions based on hypothetical scenarios and 75 multiple-choice questions.

A periodic table of elements is the only acceptable reference material in the hour and a half of time alloted for section one. The use of a calculator is forbidden during the multiple-choice questions section and during the second part of section two. However, two pages of conventions, equations, and a list of standard reduction potentials may be used in section two.

The second section is split into two subsections of two problems each, (A) 55 and (B) 40 mintues, respectively. If subsection B is completed early, subsection A may be edited in the time remaining.

The AP Chemistry Exam is available to any student in secondary school throughout the U.S. and Canada, but also to home-school students. Regardless of the letter grade attained in class or even whether or not the student has even taken the AP Chem course, he or she is eligible take the AP Exam.

These college-level exams and programs have been stringently improved and regularly updated since their initial inception in 1955, by the College Board. Though the organization known as the College Board is a non-profit organization, students are charged a fee in order to take the exams. Financial aid is available to those who qualify.

The exams are scored on a scale of 1 through 5. A score of 1 (No Recommendation) is effectively an “F”, while a 5 (Well-Qualified) equates to an “A”, though typical transcripts simply show whether or not credit has been acquired. Test scores are compared, using the bell curve grading method, as opposed to a set standard. Though their policies differ, most colleges accept a score of 4 or 5; a 3 is considered “passing” or “Qualified.” Approximately 25% of the nearly 100,000 students who take the AP Chemistry exam receive a failing score of 1.

A student demonstrating aptitude by scoring “Qualified” (or better) on AP tests are often exempt from introductory course requirements by many colleges and universities. Over two thousand colleges participate in Advanced Placement Programs. Admissions Counselors and/or Course Advisors should be consulted due to variations in placement testing methods and policies at individual institutions of higher learning.





By: Gabriel Adams

While organic chemistry is considered as the branch of chemistry in which the compounds of carbon are studied,  the name organic goes back to a much earlier time in history when chemists thought that chemical compounds in living organisms were fundamentally different from those that occur in nonliving things. Their belief was that the chemicals that could be extracted from or that were produced by living organisms had a special “vitalism” or “breath of life” given to them by some supernatural being. As such, they presented fundamentally different kinds of problems than did the chemicals found in rocks, minerals, water, air, and other nonliving entities. The chemical compounds associated with living organisms were given the name organic to emphasize their connection with life. In 1828, German chemist Friedrich Wöhler, who found a very simple way to convert chemical compounds from living organisms into comparable compounds from nonliving entities, proved that this theory of vitalism was untrue. Consequently, the definition of organic chemistry changed as a result of Wöhler’s research. The new definition was based on the observation that every compound discovered in living organisms had one property in common; they all contained the element carbon. As a result, the modern definition of organic chemistry, as the study of compounds of carbon, was adopted.

One important point that Wöhler’s research showed was that the principles and techniques of chemistry apply equally well to compounds found in living organisms and nonliving things. Nonetheless, some important differences between organic and inorganic (not organic) compounds exist. These include the following:

1. The number of organic compounds vastly exceeds the number of inorganic compounds. The ratio of carbon-based compounds to non-carbon-based compounds is at least ten to one, with close to 10 million organic compounds known today. The reason for this dramatic difference is a special property of the carbon atom: its ability to join with other carbon atoms in very long chains, in rings, and in other kinds of geometric arrangements. It is not at all unusual for dozens, hundreds, or thousands of carbon atoms to bond to each other within a single compound—a property that no other element exhibits.

2. In general, organic compounds tend to have much lower melting and boiling points than do inorganic compounds.

3. In general, organic compounds are less likely to dissolve in water than are inorganic compounds.

4. Organic compounds are likely to be more flammable but poorer conductors of heat and electricity than are inorganic compounds.

5. Organic reactions tend to take place more slowly and to produce a much more complex set of products than do inorganic reactions.

The huge number of organic compounds requires that some system be developed for organizing them. The criterion on which those compounds are organized is the presence of various functional groups. A functional group is an arrangement of atoms that is responsible for certain characteristic physical and chemical properties in a compound. For example, one such functional group is the hydroxyl group, consisting of an oxygen atom and hydrogen atom joined to each other. It is represented by the formula —OH. All organic compounds with the same functional group are said to belong to the same organic family. Any organic compound that contains a hydroxyl group, for instance, is called an alcohol. All alcohols are similar to each other in that: (1) they contain one or more hydroxyl groups, and (2) because of those groups, they have similar physical and chemical properties. For example, alcohols tend to be more soluble in water than other organic compounds because the hydroxyl groups in the alcohol form bonds with water molecules.

The simplest organic compounds are the hydrocarbons, compounds that contain only two elements: carbon and hydrogen. The class of hydrocarbons can be divided into subgroups depending on the way in which carbon and hydrogen atoms are joined to each other. In some hydrocarbons, for example, carbon and hydrogen atoms are joined to each other only by single bonds. A single bond is a chemical bond that consists of a pair of electrons. Such hydrocarbons are known as saturated hydrocarbons. In other hydrocarbons, carbon and hydrogen atoms are joined to each other by double or triple bonds. A double bond consists of two pairs of electrons, and a triple bond consists of three pairs of electrons. The symbols used for single, double, and triple bonds, respectively, are —, =, and ?. Hydrocarbons containing double and triple bonds are said to be unsaturated. Hydrocarbons can also be open-chain or ring compounds. In an open-chain hydrocarbon, the carbon atoms are all arranged in a straight line, like a strand of spaghetti. In a ring hydrocarbon, the carbons are arranged in a continuous loop, such as a square, a pentagon, or a triangle.





By: Dr.Badruddin Khan

The branch of chemistry that deals with the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal is called as Organometallic chemistry. It combines the aspects of inorganic chemistry with organic chemistry, so such compounds are also known as organo-inorganic compounds. Including all the traditional metals; lanthanides, actinides and semi-metals are considered to form organometallic compounds. There are many complexes also that feature the coordination bonds between a metal and an organic ligands, as organic ligands would always bind a metal through a heteroatom such as nitrogen or oxygen, and such compounds are then considered as coordination compounds. But, if any of the ligands would form a direct metal-carbon bond, then it would usually be considered as organometallic compound. In case of lipophilic and metal alkoxides it would be termed as metalorganics.

There are many organic coordination compounds that occur naturally in nature like hemoglobin which simply contain an iron centre that is coordinated to nitrogen atoms. When speaking of chlorophyll, magnesium acts as centre of a chlorine ring. The study of such inorganic compounds is termed as bioinorganic chemistry. The status of such compounds may vary with the nature of anionic moiety, and they may not usually be considered as organometallic.

Depending on the nature of the organic compound, the nature of the bond may also vary from ionic or covalent type. So the organic compounds that are bonded to sodium are ionic while those bonded to lead or tin are usually covalent whereas the ones bonded to lithium may have bonds with intermediate properties.

Such compounds also find their practical uses as stoichiometric and catalytic active compounds, like the use of ferrocene instead of tetraethyl lead as an anti knock agent. Organometallic compounds of reactive metals are extremely basic and are used as reductants. The act as superbases  in organic synthesis, but their flammability reduces their industrial uses severely. The Monsanto process utilizes rhodium-carbonyl complex to manufacture acetic acid industrially. Also the Wacker process is used in the oxidation of olefins. Another titanium based organometallic compound called Ziegler-Natta catalyst is used in the production of polyethylene and other polymers.

The key to understand the chemical bonding in such compounds the isobal principle is used. NMR and infrared spectroscopy techniques are commonly used to determine the structure and bonding. Organometallics play an important role in other branches of chemistry such as biological and analytical. So, chemists sometimes refer to a particular molecule as organometallic making it more convenient to understand that molecules has reaction chemistry that derives from an organometallic molecule.





By: lalit sharma

Find Physical Therapy Education in the United States and Canada. Some of the many career paths that individuals can take once they’ve attained the appropriate level of physical therapy education include professions as of course, therapists, administrators, clinicians, consultants, educators, and researchers, among others. Depending on the direction which you take through your physical therapy education, you can expect to work in clinics, hospitals, nursing homes and private homes, rehabilitation centers and other medical healthcare facilities.

With over 200 accredited physical therapy education programs from which to choose, prospective students can opt to participate in both Master Degree programs as well as Doctoral Degree programs. Once enrolled in a physical therapy education course, students learn about anatomy, biology, biomechanics, chemistry, human growth (and development), pathology, neuroanatomy and hands-on training in a variety of therapeutic methods. Additionally, physical therapy education students are often required to complete an internship or clinical training to successfully fulfill educational requirements. Upon degree achievement, graduates must gain licensure to practice in the United States. And, to maintain licensure, practicing physical therapists must take continuing physical therapy education.

Before you enroll in a physical therapy education program, it is important to note that the career field often requires individuals to be in top physical condition; as physical therapists do a lot of bending, kneeling, stooping, crouching and other physical repetitions throughout the course of the workday. However, the benefits of this service job far outweigh the physical aspects of the occupation: Career outlook for physical therapists is “expected to grow much faster than average” than other occupations through the coming years. As well, median annual earnings range between $60,000 and $88,000+. (Incomes commensurate with level of experience and physical therapy education.)

In addition to full-time physical therapist positions, physical therapy education programs are often offered to students with a desire to become occupational therapist assistants, physical therapist aides or assistants. These career-training programs include studies in anatomy, biology, chemistry, physiology and CPR and first aid, among other relative subject matter. Students who successfully complete one of over 200 accredited physical therapist assistant programs in the United States, will earn an Associate’s Degree, and will have gained certification in both CPR and first aid. Physical therapy education for aides and assistants doesn’t stop at the school level; a matter of fact, on-the-job training is frequently provided by most employers. In addition, physical therapy aides and assistants have a potential earnings’ range from $24,000 to $52,000 annually.

Furthermore, the scope of physical therapy education is not limited to conventional medicine. For example, continuing education is commonly offered in a variety of mind-body-spirit medicines like massage therapy, energy healing therapies, as well as holistic nutritional counseling.

If you (or someone you know) are interested in finding physical therapy education, let professional training within fast-growing industries like massage therapy, cosmetology, acupuncture, oriental medicine, Reiki, and others get you started! Explore career school programs near you.

Physical Therapy Education: Professional Careers in the Field

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By: Steven Parbach

HSC Chemistry is one of the most rewarding HSC subjects you can choose. In terms of scaling, Chemistry has consistently been the highest scaled HSC science course, compared to Physics and Biology. Chemistry also provides a very useful foundation for university courses in the health sciences fields (Medicine, Pharmacy and Medical science in particular). With typically around 10,000 students doing Chemistry for their HSC each year, it is also one of the most popular HSC subjects chosen. If you can do well in Chemistry, it will greatly help your UAI and your chances of getting into the university course you desire.

Why choose HSC Chemistry

As mentioned, HSC Chemistry is the highest scaled science course commonly available across practically all schools in NSW. The first reason is that because sciences (HSC Physics in particular) generally scale well, there is an economy of scale in choosing and doing both subjects. For example, if you are a logically oriented student who tends to do well at quantitative / conceptual-based subjects like mathematics, there is a good chance you will enjoy science subjects. The sad thing about the HSC and the way schools structure their subject offerings (for most schools anyway) is that students often do not have much subjects to choose from. Therefore they are left with little choice from which they can select, and most often always end up doing the same subjects (Mathematics + science combination). While this is not a bad thing, this means that if you are a student who is intent on choosing quantitative subjects, you will most likely doing at least 2 out of the 3 subjects. Based on scaling statistics of past years, Chemistry and Physics scale the highest out of the sciences.

Students should also note that Chemistry has traditionally scaled as well as English Advanced. In the past few years, HSC Chemistry had a scaled mean (published by UAC’s yearly scaling report, in their Table A3) of around 30/50. This places HSC Chemistry at around the same scaled mean as Economics, English Advanced, and slightly higher than Physics (28-29 out of 50 in recent years). While it is recommended that you choose subjects based on your talents and interests, if you are going to do at least 1 or 2 HSC science subjects, you may as well choose Chemistry as one of your science subjects in order to benefit from the good scaling.

Doing well in HSC Chemistry

HSC Chemistry is a very experience-based course. There are many things which a student will realise at the end of their Preliminary Chemistry course, or even halfway through their HSC year. For example, students find it hard to accept that there is no clearly defined pattern when trying to determine the valency of transition metals. Valencies of common anions and cations need to be rote-memorised, as there is no common thread of logic which can be used to derive them (not within the scope of the HSC subject, that is). Therefore many things come with experience, as time goes on and students slowly familiarise with the piecemeal bits of facts that they need to remember and use throughout HSC Chemistry. We will look at a few key examples of what we mean which makes this course experience-based.

Common valencies

The common valencies of anions and cations need to be remembered quite well. For example, there is no ‘reason’ that will be given to you throughout your HSC why carbonate ions have a charge of -2. Similarly there is no ‘reason’ that will be given to you to explain why silver ions have a charge of +1, whereas most other transition metals have an oxidation state of +2. These odd exceptions and facts will come with experience.

Some common valencies you should remember are:

- How to calculate the charge on monatomic ions using the periodic table. For example, Groups I, II and III would have a charge of +1, +2 and +3 respectively, whereas Groups V, VI and VII would have a charge of -3, -2 and -1 respectively.

- Transition metals have an oxidation state of +2 most of the time. Know the exceptions (discussed in next point)

- Common exceptions to transition metals having a +2 oxidatoin state are: Iron (can be iron(II) or iron(III)), copper (can be copper(I) or copper(II)) and silver (almost always +1 only, as silver(I)).

- All the common polyatomic anions (carbonate, sulfate, nitrate are the three that are most commonly referred to throughout the course)

Solubility rules

Solubility rules for HSC Chemistry are important to remember, as most of the time they help you get the state of various salts correct when writing your balanced formulae. For example, in the reaction between magnesium metal and dilute sulfuric acid, how would you know whether the resultant salt, magnesium sulfate, is in aqueous or solid state? You would know this only from remembering some general rules of solubility, that magnesium sulfate would be soluble in water.

Some commonly applicable solubility rules you will need for HSC Chemistry:

- All alkali metals (Group I metals) like sodium, potassium, lithium etc are soluble as an ion

- All nitrate salts are soluble

- All chloride salts are soluble

- Most alkali earth metals (Group II) like magnesium, calcium etc are soluble as an ion

- All hydrogen compounds (i.e. common acids like sulfuric acids, nitric acid,     hydrochloric acid) are soluble.

- Only some hydroxides are soluble (be careful here)

- Only some sulfides are soluble

- Only some carbonates are soluble

- Only some phosphates are soluble

The above is actually a very general and basic recall of the complete solubility rules that a good student should remember. Actually this is just from the top of the author’s memory from when he did his HSC many years ago, but it highlights the point that solubility rules ought to be remembered well. There will be many situations where you would like to know about the water-solubility of certain salts, in order to get the state correct. You can often find neat and useful summaries of solubility rules at various places online that are sufficient for HSC purposes.

Module-specific experience

HSC Chemistry modules are similar to HSC Physics in that they appear quite piecemeal and separated from each other. A student can have an excellent understanding in one module but have a poor understanding of the next. Therefore it is important to keep a consistent regime of study throughout the HSC year, and gain a comprehensive understanding of each module.

Within each module, a good Chemistry student would need to know about the subtle points in order to have a complete understanding. For example, in the ‘Production of Materials’ module, it is a good idea to read through a reputable textbook like Chemistry in Contexts or Conquering Chemistry and get a feel of all the various polymers (addition and condensation polymer types) that can be produced from various monomers. A good student would be able to identify the relationship between the monomer used and the polymer it results in, as well as some basic chemical and physical properties that can be predicted from looking at the polymer or even monomer structure. For example, if we see large functional groups, we know there will be chain stiffening, causing hardness, rigidity and tensile strength of the resultant polymer. If we add plasticisers or vulcanise the polymer, we know this will give the polymer flexibility and elastic properties (e.g. garden hose made from PVC). All these little facts come from experience, from sitting down and reading into a textbook to get the necessary background information needed. Or you may have a great teacher at school or HSC tutoring which might supplant your knowledge with the necessary background information.

Another example, in the next module, ‘The Acidic Environment’, the content deals almost exclusively with acids and bases, and the reactions that come from dealing with such chemicals. Through doing many questions and figuring why you went wrong each time you did, you should gain a mastery of predicting how buffers react to changes via Le Chatelier’s principle. Nearing the final exams, a good student would be able to predict all reactions to changes at a glance. For example, a common enclosed system is a fizzy softdrink. If you pressurise a softdrink can with more carbon dioxide, what happens? Increased gas pressure results in more dissolution of carbon dioxide in order to counteract the pressure change. What if you increase the temperature? Increasing temperature causes the system to react endothermically, which is the release of carbon dioxide gas. Also the specific solubility of carbon dioxide decreases as you increase temperature. Students should be able to identify and relate all these aspects of an enclosed system in order to achieve an excellent mark from HSC Chemistry.

How to ace HSC Chemistry

The short answer is to gain the necessary experience. Don’t feel bad when at first the amount of odd facts which don’t fit into any pattern seems overwhelming. Don’t let that demotivate and demoralise you. Instead, understand that all the necessary knowledge will come with experience. Practice makes perfect, so do more questions and ask more questions. If there’s anything you don’t understand, ask a teacher or tutor.

It is important to gain a solid grasp of the important fundamentals early on for a subject like Chemistry. What this means is to get a good understanding of the things which you will use again and again throughout your HSC Chemistry course, early on, preferably before year 12 starts. The things mentioned in this article, plus the following, are repeatedly used throughout the entire course:

- Common valencies (discussed above)

- Solubility rules (discussed above)

- Naming salts and covalent compounds

- Identifying the bonding structure of common substances - covalent molecular? ionic lattice? Covalent lattice? Metallic lattice?

- Understand how intermolecular forces work, and how they relate to physical properties (boiling and melting points, ductility, luster, hardness, flexibility, tensile strength etc)

- Naming carbon compounds (including multi-chains containing functional groups, multiple double and triple bonds, with attached halogens)





By: Gordon Guo

So you’ve managed to capture a woman’s imagination, maybe you’ve even been on a date. So when do you make your move? How do you take an emotional connection to a physical level? This can be a tuff transition for most guys because it feels entirely too bold. When and how do I go in for the first kiss? How can I make her comfortable being held close to me? How can we move towards sex in a way that is not too bold or awkward? If you have these kinds of questions, you are getting ahead of yourself.

The first thing to remember is that physical escalation is gradual and natural. This means it starts almost immediately after meeting and builds slowly! Your first contact with her should be casual and non-sexual. Social touching may be a hand on the small of the back or shoulder when maneuvering around her in crowded places. You may reach over standing at her side and give her one of those little side hugs to say she’s awesome for agreeing with something you said. These are all brief and casual examples that you can use seconds after meeting her.

After some light social touching you can start building up to more personal touching. This is when you have built some attraction and rapport. An easy place to start is wrapping her arm around yours promenade style or holding her hand to walk some were to talk, or to the bar or show her something. Progressing to putting your arm around her or having her sit on your lap is easier and natural now.

If you have arrived at this point comfortably she is comfortable with light flirty touching. From here on you have to think about taking two steps forward and one step back. What this means is building anticipation and chemistry. Give her a seductive look in the eyes for a moment. Sweep her hair out of her face but don’t go in for the kiss, then go back to normal conversation for a while. Take the time for a few of these subtle touches and she will indicate that she is ready to be kissed.

Remember these principles of anticipation and sexual tension when progressing towards sex. Your touch will progress with your emotional connection. A few ideas would be: running your hands up the back of her head and hair, grip her hair pulling it very gently, then release and take your hand back like nothing happened.

Progressing smoothly to this point sets you up to kiss her and take it to the next level. Now there are several principles to go with the basic progression example I have mentioned here. I have already hinted at one, the progression of your touch should be congruent with your progression of emotion. This should be enough to get you started. So keep learning more about how to the best lover she’s ever had, through reading more and experience.





By: Paul Corral

For most people, that bottle of vinegar sitting on the pantry shelf serves a multitude of purposes. Not only is it a condiment, food preservative, and a general household cleaner, but for many, it’s a medicinal wonder. Most often, it’s taken for granted, and people only see a bottle of vinegar. However, to scientists studying the origins of life on Earth, acetic acid/vinegar, is thought to have played the key role in biochemical development of the first primitive life forms, and without it, life, as we know it would not exist. 

Historical documentation of vinegar’s use for dye making, medicinal purposes, invigorating tonics, a condiment, and as a food preservative dates back to the earliest known records.  

Natural vinegar is produced by the secondary fermentation of the alcohol in wine and is a three to five percent solution of acetic acid in water. Acetic acid is what gives vinegar its distinctive biting taste and aroma. It was probably the first commercially produced acid in the world.  

Acetic acid in fundamental to our existence, not only from a essential biological standpoint, but also in the production of chemicals, light industry, textiles, pharmaceuticals, printing/dyeing, rubber, pesticides, plastics, photographic chemicals, electronics, and food processing to name a few.  

In nature, a family of bacteria called acetobacter converts alcohol into acetic acid, and they are the single largest producer of acetic acid to keep Earth’s the life machine running. 

The microscopic, acid resistant critters are pervasive in the environment. They thrive in the alcoholic ecological niches of flowers, fruits, water, soil, and in a dormant stage, they’re even floating around in the air we breathe. Acetobacter also thrive in the intestines of all living creatures where they are essential to the digestive process and most likely, the major suppliers of acetate to keep our system functioning.

According to the widely accepted Wächtershäuser’s theory on how primitive life forms evolved from the primordial soup, the first organic molecule in the chain of events was acetic acid. He based his theory on the fact that the formation of acetic acid is a primary step in metabolism in most all living things that provides the energy cells use to manufacture all the biological ingredients an organism needs to exist.

There is a metabolic activity essential to life called acetylation, and among many other roles the process has in the body, it also plays the key role in the repair of DNA. A study published in the 2000 Elsevier publication Cell about DNA repair states: “Data show that cells defective for DNA-break repair capability lack the histone acetylase [acetylation] activity leading to apoptotic machinery breakdown.” 

Acetate hemodialysis is a common therapy for people suffering with kidney failure. In several studies, aside from acetate’s buffering effect, it has shown to aid in dialysis by dilating veins, thus increasing the effectiveness of the treatment. One 1987 study on stated: “Acetate provoked vascular dilatation, which was compensated for by a heart rate-dependent increase in cardiac index.” 

Acetic acid is fundamental to the biochemistry of almost all forms of life. It’s the foundation for the acetyl/acetate group which is a plays the essential in the Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid cycle. The Krebs Cycle occurs in all plants and animals. The importance of the function lies in the efficiency with which it captures energy released from nutrient molecules and stores it in a usable form.

In humans and animals, functioning of the Krebs cycle relies on a product produced in our system called Acetyl Coenzyme A created during the synthesis of fatty acids.  

Another acetate-based enzyme called Acetyl Cholinesterase/AchE is integral to the operation of brain functions and the central nervous system.  

In fact, there are a number of acetyl-based enzymes that are essential to human/animal life down to the chemical composition of genes.

Curiously, when it comes to explaining where the acetate comes from to feed the processes, scientists’ explanations seem to be somewhat vague, convoluted, and often, contradictory. However, aside from the metabolic production of acetate by organ functions, large amounts of acetic acid is produced by acetobacter in the intestines which is absorbed into the system; and it would logically appear that that process provides most of the acetate needed.

In a 1985 study published in the Journal of Clinical Investigation, Carbohydrate fermentation in the human colon and its relation to acetate concentrations in venous blood, the authors’ state: “These studies show that the large intestine makes an important contribution to blood acetate levels in man and that fermentation may influence metabolic processes well beyond the wall of this organ.”

Several studies suggest that there may be such a thing as an acetate deficiency, and acetate supplementation may be useful in the treatment of Canavan disease, a hereditary, neurodegenerative disorder.

In folk medicine, apple cider vinegar is touted as a cure for many health problems such as a host of allergies, sinus infections, acne, high cholesterol, flu, chronic fatigue, candida, acid reflux, sore throats, contact dermatitis, arthritis, and gout.   While apple cider vinegar is the traditional choice, the only ingredient of any volume that may have an effect at the dosage recommended (one – two tablespoons a day) is acetic acid.

As far as cider vinegar’s effectiveness for alleviating gout and arthritis symptoms, the anecdotal (testimonial) evidence is overwhelming. And some studies give credence to the claim; however, they all point to the acetic acid content.

The interesting aspect of the cider vinegar is that unlike the parent apple for which, possibly, is the most well researched fruit, there is no research to be about cider vinegar or even plain of vinegar as having any health benefits.

To an investigative writer, in light of all the abundant health claims made for cider vinegar, the paucity of research, especially to disprove the claims, evokes a great deal of suspicion – the unmistakable aroma of a rat rotting somewhere in the woodwork. It’s most unusual not to see volumes of scientific studies into a product that is so entrenched in folk medicine.

Both the parochial scientists and naturopaths fail to see the possibility of acetate deficiencies. Maybe, it’s simply a question of ‘not seeing the forest for the for the [apple] trees.’ However, the role of acetate in animal health has been well researched in animal husbandry, and farm animal feedstock is routinely supplemented with either vinegar or acetic acid.

However, when realizing that primordial formation of acetic acid is postulated to be responsible for the creation of the first life on earth, and the essential function acetate plays in biochemistry, there has to be something special about vinegar.

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By: George Glasser

L-Arginine is an amino acid that is one of 20 needed by the body for its existence. To some, it is not what is known as an essential amino acid, since it can be biosynthesized by the body, but arginine is termed a conditionally essential amino acid in that we must include some in our diet because our biochemistry does not produce all that our body needs, particularly during the growing years.

Amino acids are the building blocks of life, and are the units from which proteins and ultimately our DNA are built. In fact DNA contains the blueprints for every protein used by our bodies, including all the enzymes without which our biochemistry could not occur. When a supply of a particular protein is needed, the DNA template provides the sequence of amino acids needed to produce it.

Of the 20 amino acids we need, only 10 can be produced by our body: the other 10 must be included in our diet and are termed ‘essential’ because they are an essential part of our diet, just as vitamins and minerals are. Without an adequate supply of essential components, we cannot survive, and if the essential amino acids are depleted in our diet then the body will break down muscle tissue to release them.

Although L-arginine is termed a ‘conditionally’ essential amino acid, it is included by many among the 10 regarded as being essential. Hence, depending upon who you read, it can be either essential or non-essential. That is because, as inferred earlier, arginine is needed for growth and development, and there is insufficient in the diet to meet these needs. Therefore, while it is essential in cases where growth is still taking place, it is not in those where normal growth is complete.

Proteins are essential for all animal life, forming not only the enzymes, or biochemical catalysts, but also muscles and DNA among other bodily tissues. Protein is also a necessary part of our diet, and it is from protein, animal or vegetable, that we get the amino acids in our diet. L-arginine is one of these, being available from all meats and seafood’s, and vegetables rich in protein such as soy, seeds, nuts and grains.

So what does arginine do for us, quite a lot in fact, many of its functions being related to our health? Arginine plays an important role in the healing of wounds, especially bone, assisting the immune function, decreasing blood pressure and speeding up the repair time of tissue. However, it possesses other properties such as increasing muscle mass, helping to increase male fertility and improving the circulation.

It also helps to remove ammonia from the body, and is a precursor for the biosynthesis of nitric oxide (NO2). It is in the way that L-arginine works with the nitrogen stores of the body that we will focus on here, prior to touching on its other properties.

L-Arginine transports, stores and excretes nitrogen, and used biochemically to manufacture nitric oxide. This oxide of nitrogen plays a very important role in your body, and is produced in every cell of your body. Nitric oxide helps in the dilation of your blood vessels, allowing a reduction in blood pressure, better circulation and helping to prevent a mans man-hood dysfunction, all of which are due to its relaxing effect on smooth muscle contraction and the promotion of the increased blood flow necessary for men and their functions. It is also important to your immune system and nervous system.

It works in a similar way to the effect of nitroglycerine on the heart: this is converted in the body to nitric oxide which relaxes the blood vessels and so reduces the amount of work needed by the heart. The way in which L-arginine forms nitric oxide is by the action of the enzyme nitric oxide synthase.

The amino acid is also an important component of the Citric Acid or Kreb’s cycle, where it reacts with ammonia which is a toxic by-product in the generation of energy in the mitochondria. Ammonia is converted to urea by L-arginine and excreted from the body. This is another way in which L-arginine is involved in the storage and use of nitrogen-containing compounds in your biochemistry.

It was mentioned earlier that arginine is an essential amino acid for children. Studies have indicated that it supports the release of the human growth hormone from the pituitary gland although the amount released through supplementation of the amino acid varies widely between individuals. The growth hormone maintains the production of proteins and muscle tissue in the body cells. This reduces as we age, and arginine becomes non-essential, the smaller amounts needed in our biochemistry being manufactured by the body.

The anabolic effect of the supplement is believed to increase the effectiveness of exercise intended to increase muscle bulk and reduce the percentage of body fat, and many take L-arginine as a supplement while undergoing such anabolic fitness and exercise programs. It is normally best to start with low supplement levels and work up due the potential side effects (diarrhea and nausea).

Arginine is an important component in the body’s healing mechanisms for both tissue and bone, and studies have confirmed accelerated healing of wounds and fractures with arginine supplementation. Although the mechanism by which this occurs is not yet understood, there is evidence that it may be connected with the nitric oxide pathway and increased blood flow, and also with its effect on the immune system in reducing inflammation at the healing site.

Diabetics, however, should be careful with substances that promote the release of growth hormone, and children with incomplete bone growth should also use such agents only under medical supervision. With diabetics, their condition could be either exacerbated or improved, and those with herpes and some psychotic conditions should also be careful.

Nitrogenous compounds are essential to life, and L-arginine plays a significant role in the storage, use and secretion of them. Without it life would not be possible, although it is its visible uses, such as the effect of nitrous oxide on blood flow and of proteins on muscle metabolism, for which it is best known to those that use it, either as a supplement or as a remedy. Pure supplement form is available at your local or internet health food store.





By: Darrell Miller