Dec
20
In this age of globalization and wireless technology, worrying about hectic schedules and living complicated life is completely normal. When too much worrying becomes overwhelming, you may feel like they’re out of control and they’re running your life. Consider your thoughts and feelings. The excessive amount of time you feel anxious or have difficulty sleeping because of your worries can be symptoms of an anxiety disorders.
We all experience anxiety almost everyday. It is considered a natural part of life. It refers to the worries and concern of every day life which may lead to stress and nervousness. Anxiety to young people can be limited to situations in school such as project deadlines, exams, special events like sports and proms.
There can be something good about feeling anxious. It can actually help students to be motivated to prepare for the upcoming exams or recitations. Athletes train well and become alert when being kept on their toes in potentially dangerous situations. Occasional anxiety is something not to be concerned about. However, for some teenagers, anxiety tends to rule their their lives. Anxiety disorder can interfere with people’s ability to function normally. Teens with anxiety disorders may suffer from intense, long-lasting fear or worry, in addition to other symptoms.
Anxiety disorders are common mental health conditions characterized by unrealistic fear and worry which affect people of all ages, including kids and teens. Young people with this condition aren’t crazy but may find it hard to get through the day. Aside from difficulty studying and concentrating, young people with anxiety disorder can also experience insomnia, or the inability to fall asleep or stay asleep, as well as the loss of appetite. The good news is, anxiety disorder can be treated. Young people can be affected by several types of this condition which include Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, Phobia, Social Anxiety Disorder, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.
Having an anxiety disorder can make you feel stressed, tense or unable to relax, and you may experience physical symptoms such as headaches, sweaty hands, upset stomach, pounding heart, and muscle tension. People with extremely intense symptoms may experience panic attacks and may think they are having a heart attack or might even die.
There is no one cause for anxiety disorders. Research shows that many factors contribute to this condition including genetics, brain biochemistry, an overactive “fight or flight” response, life circumstances, and learned behavior.
Genetics - When one member of a family has anxiety disorder, there is a possibility that other members may also develop the condition, though of a different type, due to the hereditary or genetic component of anxiety disorder.
Brain Biochemistry - Genetics influence a person’s brain biochemistry, and may make certain people more prone to problems with anxiety. The brain’s biochemistry involves the brain’s millions of nerve cells, called neurons, that constantly communicate with each other through chemicals called neurotransmitters.
These neurotransmitters are the brain’s chemical messengers, and there are specific neurotransmitters that help regulate mood. Neurotransmitters are released from one neuron and attach to a receptor on another neuron. However, if the receptor is blocked and unable to receive the neurotransmitter, it can create an imbalance in the levels of the neurotransmitter in the brain, and can cause symptoms of anxiety. There are many kinds of neurotransmitters but those that are involved in anxiety are called serotonin and dopamine. Imbalance of these chemicals will result to anxiety and other problems.
Life Circumstances - Traumatic life experiences can also set the stage for anxiety disorders which leads to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.
Learned Behavior - Having a family environment where there is a pervading atmosphere of fear can influence a child to grow up viewing the world as a scary place. The child will become fearful and will always become anxious of worse things to happen.
“Fight or Flight” Response – This is the brain’s automatic reaction to an anxiety-provoking situation which can also fuel an anxiety disorder. When a person senses a potentially dangerous situation, the brain quickly sends out a signal to amygdala, a small structure in the brain that activates the “fight or flight’ response. This response triggers sweating and makes the heart beats faster. The body prepares itself ready for the eventuality of danger. The danger may be real or just perceived danger. As soon as the person realizes that there is no more danger, the person relaxes, and the “fight or flight” response stops.
Since the amygdala is programmed to “remember” the trigger in case it happens again, it enables the brain to protect the person from future danger by keeping track of all cues that might signal danger. When the amygdala overreacts, the person will mistakenly interpret certain things as dangerous.
Young people overwhelmed by anxiety disorder resort to alcohol and drugs, including sleeping pills, in order to relieve themselves of stress, anxiety attacks and other symptoms. They feel that others may not understand what they are going through. However, drugs and alcohol only create a false sense of relaxation which can be dangerous and may lead to lots of other serious problems.
Young people must not let anxiety prevent them from enjoying their lives. There are treatments and medications which can help them including prescription and over-the-counter drugs, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and relaxation or biofeedback to control tense muscles. A combination of treatments may also be prescribed.
Family support and communication is the key in dealing with people who are having anxiety disorders. Close friends are a valuable part of the solution in overcoming anxiety problems.
By: malo
We all experience anxiety almost everyday. It is considered a natural part of life. It refers to the worries and concern of every day life which may lead to stress and nervousness. Anxiety to young people can be limited to situations in school such as project deadlines, exams, special events like sports and proms.
There can be something good about feeling anxious. It can actually help students to be motivated to prepare for the upcoming exams or recitations. Athletes train well and become alert when being kept on their toes in potentially dangerous situations. Occasional anxiety is something not to be concerned about. However, for some teenagers, anxiety tends to rule their their lives. Anxiety disorder can interfere with people’s ability to function normally. Teens with anxiety disorders may suffer from intense, long-lasting fear or worry, in addition to other symptoms.
Anxiety disorders are common mental health conditions characterized by unrealistic fear and worry which affect people of all ages, including kids and teens. Young people with this condition aren’t crazy but may find it hard to get through the day. Aside from difficulty studying and concentrating, young people with anxiety disorder can also experience insomnia, or the inability to fall asleep or stay asleep, as well as the loss of appetite. The good news is, anxiety disorder can be treated. Young people can be affected by several types of this condition which include Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, Phobia, Social Anxiety Disorder, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.
Having an anxiety disorder can make you feel stressed, tense or unable to relax, and you may experience physical symptoms such as headaches, sweaty hands, upset stomach, pounding heart, and muscle tension. People with extremely intense symptoms may experience panic attacks and may think they are having a heart attack or might even die.
There is no one cause for anxiety disorders. Research shows that many factors contribute to this condition including genetics, brain biochemistry, an overactive “fight or flight” response, life circumstances, and learned behavior.
Genetics - When one member of a family has anxiety disorder, there is a possibility that other members may also develop the condition, though of a different type, due to the hereditary or genetic component of anxiety disorder.
Brain Biochemistry - Genetics influence a person’s brain biochemistry, and may make certain people more prone to problems with anxiety. The brain’s biochemistry involves the brain’s millions of nerve cells, called neurons, that constantly communicate with each other through chemicals called neurotransmitters.
These neurotransmitters are the brain’s chemical messengers, and there are specific neurotransmitters that help regulate mood. Neurotransmitters are released from one neuron and attach to a receptor on another neuron. However, if the receptor is blocked and unable to receive the neurotransmitter, it can create an imbalance in the levels of the neurotransmitter in the brain, and can cause symptoms of anxiety. There are many kinds of neurotransmitters but those that are involved in anxiety are called serotonin and dopamine. Imbalance of these chemicals will result to anxiety and other problems.
Life Circumstances - Traumatic life experiences can also set the stage for anxiety disorders which leads to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.
Learned Behavior - Having a family environment where there is a pervading atmosphere of fear can influence a child to grow up viewing the world as a scary place. The child will become fearful and will always become anxious of worse things to happen.
“Fight or Flight” Response – This is the brain’s automatic reaction to an anxiety-provoking situation which can also fuel an anxiety disorder. When a person senses a potentially dangerous situation, the brain quickly sends out a signal to amygdala, a small structure in the brain that activates the “fight or flight’ response. This response triggers sweating and makes the heart beats faster. The body prepares itself ready for the eventuality of danger. The danger may be real or just perceived danger. As soon as the person realizes that there is no more danger, the person relaxes, and the “fight or flight” response stops.
Since the amygdala is programmed to “remember” the trigger in case it happens again, it enables the brain to protect the person from future danger by keeping track of all cues that might signal danger. When the amygdala overreacts, the person will mistakenly interpret certain things as dangerous.
Young people overwhelmed by anxiety disorder resort to alcohol and drugs, including sleeping pills, in order to relieve themselves of stress, anxiety attacks and other symptoms. They feel that others may not understand what they are going through. However, drugs and alcohol only create a false sense of relaxation which can be dangerous and may lead to lots of other serious problems.
Young people must not let anxiety prevent them from enjoying their lives. There are treatments and medications which can help them including prescription and over-the-counter drugs, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and relaxation or biofeedback to control tense muscles. A combination of treatments may also be prescribed.
Family support and communication is the key in dealing with people who are having anxiety disorders. Close friends are a valuable part of the solution in overcoming anxiety problems.
By: malo
Dec
19
Biochemistry question: What will happen if you put salt water plants in freshwater?
Filed Under Biochemistry | 2 Comments
Hello,
What will happen if you put salt water plants in freshwater? Will the plants die from the difference of the water concentrations? Please explain from a molecular level since this is a biochemistry essay question.
Thanks a lot!
Dec
18
Four particles, a, b, c, and d, are to be distributed into two states of equal energy, E1.
a) Write down a set of configurations corresponding to each possible distribution of particles through the two states, excluding permutations within the two states
b) calculate W’, the number of distinguishable permutations ( or stat. weight) or each distribution
c) Determine the most probable distribution and its probability when considering all of the distributions together
d) How many particles will be in each state for the most probable distribution?
Dec
18
Can you give me a site where i can find free articles of physical chemistry?
Filed Under Physical Chemistry | 2 Comments
they must be printed in a journal.
Dec
18
Physical chemistry?
Filed Under Physical Chemistry | 3 Comments
Does anyone know about a good physical chemistry study guide? I’m taking this class this semester, and I need some extra help.
I’ve heard abouth the Schaum’s study guide, but some say it’s kind of confusing.
Dec
17
organic chemistry?
Filed Under Organic Chemistry | 2 Comments
I’ve realized that i have to take organic chemistry in college. Can someone tell me what you actually do in organic chemistry?
Dec
17
Health And Wellness Depend On The Colloidal Trace Minerals We Consume
Filed Under Biochemistry | Leave a Comment
Colloidal trace minerals are just as important to our health and well being as vitamins. Practically since birth we have had it pounded into us that we must eat our vitamins if we are to be healthy. The fact is that vitamins are of little use to you without minerals which are as essential for your metabolism as any vitamin is.
The essential minerals are the inorganic equivalents of the essential organic vitamins. They work together to maintain the biochemistry that keeps you alive. Take calcium, for example. That is a mineral needed for healthy teeth and bones, among many other things, but it is no good without vitamin D. Magnesium and potassium are also needed for healthy bones. Take blood clotting: vitamin K is the blood clotting vitamin, but blood will not clot without calcium.
How is energy generated in your body from the carbohydrates and sugars that you eat? They are converted to glucose that is converted to energy in every cell in your body and used in-situ. Your heart gets the energy to beat from cells in the heart - energy does not float around the blood waiting to be used. It is generated by means of the production of a substance known as ATP - adenosine triphosphate of which phosphorus is an essential component. Without the mineral phosphate none of us would be alive - nor would any form of life for that matter. ATP is the universal molecule of life.
So far we have discussed some of the seven major minerals: calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, sodium and chlorine. There are many more that your body needs, and estimates vary from 45 to 70 trace minerals, without which you would find it difficult to function properly. Although your body can make many of the organic substances needed for life from vitamins, amino acids, fatty acids and proteins, it cannot make minerals which have to be taken in as part of your diet. They must be taken in your regular diet or as a supplement.
In the USA a major mineral is one that is needed in amounts greater than 100 mg (0.1g) a day, and trace minerals are required at less than 100 mg a day. So one that is needed at 100.1 is major, and one at 99.9 mg is trace. Is there a difference in the source of trace minerals, or would any source be good enough? The answer lies in the construction of the human body, and the way in which it absorbs minerals.
Your body is not designed to absorb metallic minerals. The way that such minerals are available in your diet is as part of larger organic molecules, and this is the way they must be taken as a supplement. Thus, you can’t just drink a soluble metal salt because it will pass straight through you with only around 5% absorption, if it doesn’t poison you first. For supplement purpose, metallic minerals are chelated, or combined with larger organic molecules such as proteins and amino acids, and this increases absorption to as high as 50%.
The necessity of trace minerals in the human diet was not discovered, as much as the result of a number of studies on various societies and remedies that appeared to have no basis for their effects. The Hunzas and Azerbaijanis, for example, are known to live very long lives, and investigations into this showed their diet was very rich in colloidal trace minerals from glacial water and food grown in soil enriched by that water.
It was through studies such as this and also investigation into the metabolites obtained from liver extracts that indicated the importance of many trace minerals. Take arsenic, for example. A known poison in larger quantities, trace quantities have been found to be metabolized by the liver, and while no studies have been carried out on the use of arsenic as a trace element in human biochemistry, studies on rats and human liver extracts have indicated that it could have a part to play in normal growth and reproduction.
Trace minerals take part in many enzyme reactions, and physicians now agree that many health conditions could be enzymic in origin. It follows, then, that trace elements are important in maintaining good health. It is certainly true that we cannot live without any of the seven major minerals. And it is just as certain that many of the trace minerals are just as import to human biochemistry as the major ones. It is certainly true of vegetables, which are less complex biological entities than humans, and if tomatoes need at least eight known minerals for good growth then it is certain that we will need a lot more. No studies are needed to convince us of that.
Take zinc, for example. Zinc is essential for proper liver function, wound healing and reproduction: spermatogenesis, the proper development of the primary and secondary male sex organs, and all area of the female reproduction process. Zinc is classed as a trace element, as is selenium, a deficiency of which can lead to heart disease, mental retardation and impaired function of the thyroid. Selenium deficiency is not common in the West but is in China where many areas are depleted of selenium. However, if zinc and selenium are known to be essential, how many of the other seventy or so trace minerals are also essential to human health?
The trace minerals in general are believed to protect us from some degenerative conditions, the effects of environmental pollution and help to protect us from the effects of an excessive intake of toxic minerals. Although there have been insufficient studies carried out on most trace minerals, it is known that they should be taken in chelated form, metallic in nature or not.
It is also known that such minerals should be taken as a balanced mixture as found in nature. A bullet approach, using an individual mineral to treat a certain condition, could lead to an imbalance in the body, and severe side effects, some of which might not yet be known. What is known is that certain minerals are tolerated by each other in specific relative concentrations, but if this balance is upset then they can inter-react and produce unpleasant side effects on, for example, the delicate balance of minerals in the blood.
It is becoming increasingly clear that modern farming methods have resulted in mineral depletion of the soil, and that our normal diet now only contains a small number of the minerals that our forefathers were taking. Plants draw up minerals from the soil when they grow, and we take in these when we consume them or the animals that live on them. Saturation of the soil year in year out by chemical fertilizers low in or devoid of trace minerals has resulted in a sterile environment for our feedstock, and has made colloidal trace mineral supplements almost mandatory for good health.
Today’s plants can contain fewer than 20 minerals, compared to the 70 plus of our ancestors. Life expectancy is increasing in spite of our increasingly poor diet rather than because of it, and is due more to medical advances than to advances in agriculture. A mineral supplement does seem necessary, but when you take one it should be balanced so that no one mineral is in excess at the expense of another.
This helps to reduce the possibility of overdosing on an individual substance while maintaining a natural balance of minerals in your body to make sure that your normal biochemistry is not interrupted by some deficiency or excess that has yet to be discovered. While this might seem a spurious argument, you can be certain that those in the past that used cadmium and lead as cosmetics would rather have known the effects of these toxic substances that eventually killed them.
So use chelated trace mineral by all means, but make sure that they are balanced and tested so that nothing is present that can upset the normal balance of minerals in your body. If they work for tomatoes they should work for you!
By: Darrell Miller
The essential minerals are the inorganic equivalents of the essential organic vitamins. They work together to maintain the biochemistry that keeps you alive. Take calcium, for example. That is a mineral needed for healthy teeth and bones, among many other things, but it is no good without vitamin D. Magnesium and potassium are also needed for healthy bones. Take blood clotting: vitamin K is the blood clotting vitamin, but blood will not clot without calcium.
How is energy generated in your body from the carbohydrates and sugars that you eat? They are converted to glucose that is converted to energy in every cell in your body and used in-situ. Your heart gets the energy to beat from cells in the heart - energy does not float around the blood waiting to be used. It is generated by means of the production of a substance known as ATP - adenosine triphosphate of which phosphorus is an essential component. Without the mineral phosphate none of us would be alive - nor would any form of life for that matter. ATP is the universal molecule of life.
So far we have discussed some of the seven major minerals: calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, sodium and chlorine. There are many more that your body needs, and estimates vary from 45 to 70 trace minerals, without which you would find it difficult to function properly. Although your body can make many of the organic substances needed for life from vitamins, amino acids, fatty acids and proteins, it cannot make minerals which have to be taken in as part of your diet. They must be taken in your regular diet or as a supplement.
In the USA a major mineral is one that is needed in amounts greater than 100 mg (0.1g) a day, and trace minerals are required at less than 100 mg a day. So one that is needed at 100.1 is major, and one at 99.9 mg is trace. Is there a difference in the source of trace minerals, or would any source be good enough? The answer lies in the construction of the human body, and the way in which it absorbs minerals.
Your body is not designed to absorb metallic minerals. The way that such minerals are available in your diet is as part of larger organic molecules, and this is the way they must be taken as a supplement. Thus, you can’t just drink a soluble metal salt because it will pass straight through you with only around 5% absorption, if it doesn’t poison you first. For supplement purpose, metallic minerals are chelated, or combined with larger organic molecules such as proteins and amino acids, and this increases absorption to as high as 50%.
The necessity of trace minerals in the human diet was not discovered, as much as the result of a number of studies on various societies and remedies that appeared to have no basis for their effects. The Hunzas and Azerbaijanis, for example, are known to live very long lives, and investigations into this showed their diet was very rich in colloidal trace minerals from glacial water and food grown in soil enriched by that water.
It was through studies such as this and also investigation into the metabolites obtained from liver extracts that indicated the importance of many trace minerals. Take arsenic, for example. A known poison in larger quantities, trace quantities have been found to be metabolized by the liver, and while no studies have been carried out on the use of arsenic as a trace element in human biochemistry, studies on rats and human liver extracts have indicated that it could have a part to play in normal growth and reproduction.
Trace minerals take part in many enzyme reactions, and physicians now agree that many health conditions could be enzymic in origin. It follows, then, that trace elements are important in maintaining good health. It is certainly true that we cannot live without any of the seven major minerals. And it is just as certain that many of the trace minerals are just as import to human biochemistry as the major ones. It is certainly true of vegetables, which are less complex biological entities than humans, and if tomatoes need at least eight known minerals for good growth then it is certain that we will need a lot more. No studies are needed to convince us of that.
Take zinc, for example. Zinc is essential for proper liver function, wound healing and reproduction: spermatogenesis, the proper development of the primary and secondary male sex organs, and all area of the female reproduction process. Zinc is classed as a trace element, as is selenium, a deficiency of which can lead to heart disease, mental retardation and impaired function of the thyroid. Selenium deficiency is not common in the West but is in China where many areas are depleted of selenium. However, if zinc and selenium are known to be essential, how many of the other seventy or so trace minerals are also essential to human health?
The trace minerals in general are believed to protect us from some degenerative conditions, the effects of environmental pollution and help to protect us from the effects of an excessive intake of toxic minerals. Although there have been insufficient studies carried out on most trace minerals, it is known that they should be taken in chelated form, metallic in nature or not.
It is also known that such minerals should be taken as a balanced mixture as found in nature. A bullet approach, using an individual mineral to treat a certain condition, could lead to an imbalance in the body, and severe side effects, some of which might not yet be known. What is known is that certain minerals are tolerated by each other in specific relative concentrations, but if this balance is upset then they can inter-react and produce unpleasant side effects on, for example, the delicate balance of minerals in the blood.
It is becoming increasingly clear that modern farming methods have resulted in mineral depletion of the soil, and that our normal diet now only contains a small number of the minerals that our forefathers were taking. Plants draw up minerals from the soil when they grow, and we take in these when we consume them or the animals that live on them. Saturation of the soil year in year out by chemical fertilizers low in or devoid of trace minerals has resulted in a sterile environment for our feedstock, and has made colloidal trace mineral supplements almost mandatory for good health.
Today’s plants can contain fewer than 20 minerals, compared to the 70 plus of our ancestors. Life expectancy is increasing in spite of our increasingly poor diet rather than because of it, and is due more to medical advances than to advances in agriculture. A mineral supplement does seem necessary, but when you take one it should be balanced so that no one mineral is in excess at the expense of another.
This helps to reduce the possibility of overdosing on an individual substance while maintaining a natural balance of minerals in your body to make sure that your normal biochemistry is not interrupted by some deficiency or excess that has yet to be discovered. While this might seem a spurious argument, you can be certain that those in the past that used cadmium and lead as cosmetics would rather have known the effects of these toxic substances that eventually killed them.
So use chelated trace mineral by all means, but make sure that they are balanced and tested so that nothing is present that can upset the normal balance of minerals in your body. If they work for tomatoes they should work for you!
By: Darrell Miller
Dec
16
Lipid Biochemistry
Filed Under Biochemistry | Leave a Comment
FATTY ACIDS
Fatty acids are long-chain “carboxylic” acids, that is, hydrocarbon (alkyl) chains containing the terminal -COOH chemical group. (Fig. 2)
[ Fatty Acid Structure Image ]
http://www.wysong.net/articles/lipid/figures/figure2.jpg
Fatty acids contain from 4 to 22 carbon atoms. They can be saturated, having no double bonds in the carbon chain, mono-unsaturated with one double bond in the chain, or polyunsaturated with several double bonds in the fatty acid.
In nature, triglycerides occur linked (esterified) to glycerol and hence are called glycerides. If solid they are called fats, if liquid they are called oils. One fatty acid combined (esterified) with glycerol is a monoglyceride, two combined is a diglyceride, and three attached to the glycerol backbone (the most possible) is a triglyceride.
Saturated fat (e.g. palmitic and stearic) exclusively fit in the 1 and 3 positions whereas unsaturated fatty acids can distribute randomly among the three positions on the glycerol backbone. A common configuration is thus a saturated fat in positions 1 and 3 and an unsaturated fatty acid in position 2. (Fig. 3)
[ Structure of a Triglyceride Image ]
http://www.wysong.net/articles/lipid/figures//figure3.jpg
Fatty acids containing fewer than 16 carbon atoms, and saturated fatty acids, are largely oxidized to provide energy. Those containing 16 to 22 carbon atoms can also be oxidized for energy, but in addition can be incorporated into cell membranes, regulate metabolism after conversion to eicosanoids (prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, lipoxins, and various other hydroxy analogs discussed later) changed to other fatty acids, or stored in fat (adipose) tissues.
NOMENCLATURE
Abbreviated notations simplify fatty acid nomenclature. In the case of linoleic acid (abbreviated LA; notation 18:2w6). The 18 means the molecule has 18 carbon atoms, the 2 means that there are two double bonds in the molecule and the w6 means the first double bond begins with the sixth carbon atom counting from the methyl (CH3), omega (w) end of the carbon chain. (In many publications omega is designated as a small case “n” instead of” w.”) The other end of the chain, the carboxylic acid end, is termed the delta (?) end. (Fig. 4)
[ Linoleic and Linolenic Acid Structure and Nomenclature Image ]
http://www.wysong.net/articles/lipid/figures/figure4.jpg
The double bonds in the nutritionally important fatty acids are separated by methylene groups (CH2). Hence, the second double bond in LA must begin with the ninth carbon atom. Common fatty acids are detailed in Figure 5.
[Nomenclature and Structure of Common Fatty Acids Image ]
http://www.wysong.net/articles/lipid/figures/figure5.jpg
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Fatty acids with 16 and l8-carbon chains can participate in the manufacture of phospholipids which are the main structural components of cell membranes. Phospholipids are similar to triglycerides in that fatty acid molecules are attached to a glycerol molecule, a three carbon alcohol (or, less commonly, sphingosine, a more complex amino alcohol). In triglycerides, all three esterifiable positions on a glycerol molecule are occupied by a fatty acid. In a phospholipids, only two are so occupied and the third is esterified to phosphoric acid which may have in turn other compounds attached to it such as choline, serine, glycerol, inositol or ethanolamine. Lecithin, the best known phospholipids, has choline attached to the phosphate and is thus termed phosphatidylcholine. If phosphoric acid alone is attached, the compound is called a phosphotidate. Many molecular variations are also possible by mixing various fatty acids on the glycerol backbone. (Fig. 6)
[Structure of Phospholipids Image ]
http://www.wysong.net/articles/lipid/figures/figure6.jpg
ISOMERS
Figure 7 demonstrates the biochemically important cis- and trans- forms of fatty acids. Notice in the cis- form the hydrogen atoms on the carbons adjacent to the double bond are on the same side of the molecule.
The repulsive forces between these “crowded” hydrogen atoms cause unsaturated fatty acids to assume particular non-linear shapes which play an important role in lipid membrane configuration, fluidity, and in biochemical reactions involving enzymes.
[ Isomers Image ]
http://www.wysong.net/articles/lipid/figures/figure7.jpg
[ Fatty Acid Configurations Image ]
http://www.wysong.net/articles/lipid/figures/figure8.jpg
In the trans- form of fatty acids, the hydrogen atoms are on opposite sides of the molecule and their repulsive forces cancel each other, and thus the molecule is not bent. Although the trans- form is more stable, its chemical properties and biological functions are altered. (Figs. 7 and
BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES
A biological (plasma) membrane surrounds all cells within tissue as well as the organelles lying within the cytoplasm. To help visualize size, if we were the size of bacteria, a cell would be the size of a large auditorium. (In true size, one billion cells fit in one cubic inch.) This cell “auditorium” is housed by a skin only two molecules thick. The various drawings of biochemicals depicted in these pages would therefore be as they would appear from our size as a bacteria, or as a bacteria sized person would see them through a magnifying glass.
The membrane is not a static sac, but rather a complex of chemicals with gates and pumps to control chemical and ionic balances, receptors for stimuli and signal generators. It is made up primarily of phospholipids, protein, glycolipids and cholesterol, all of which of course come directly from food or are synthesized in situ by components of food after they have been broken down by digestion.
Membrane lipids are amphipathic in that they contain both a hydrophilic polar end and a hydrophobic non-polar end. Phospholipids orient themselves into a bilayer sheet in membranes with the hydrophilic ends pointed to the outside and the hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails pointing to the inside. These properties make salts of fatty acids an important functional component of soaps since their fat soluble hydrophobic ends attract “fatty dirt” and their water soluble hydrophilic ends can attract “watery dirt.”
The neck of a fatty acid is located next to the delta carboxyl end and is stiff. The tail portion next to the omega end, if containing cis- double bonds, is highly active, oscillating at a million vibrations per second. (Figs. 8 and 9)
[ Membrane Image ]
http://www.wysong.net/articles/lipid/figures/figure8a.jpg
[Triglyceride Fluidity ]
http://www.wysong.net/articles/lipid/figures/figure9.jpg
Lipids, and some proteins within membranes, are also in constant lateral motion. In a bacterium, a single phospholipid will travel from one end to the other in one second. Thus membranes are in effect two-dimensional solutions of an array of oriented molecules.
Although membranes are considered lipid bilayers, almost 50% of the membrane is composed of protein which serves many functional roles. The sugar residues of glycolipids (sphingosine + fatty acid + sugar, such as sphingomyelin) and glycoproteins (sugars attached to membrane proteins) are found protruding on the outer surface of membranes. Cholesterol, as well as the length of fatty acid tails and their degree of saturation, affects membrane fluidity. Cholesterol sandwiched between membrane fatty acids prevents their crystallization. (Fig. 10)
[ Bilipid Cell Membrane Image ]
http://www.wysong.net/articles/lipid/figures/figure10.jpg
The specific spatial configuration and electronegative discontinuity of essential fatty acids pennit linkage with sulfhydral protein groups in membranes to form pi electron quantum mechanical membrane potentials that affect the transport of oxygen into tissues. Also, it is on the lipid membranes of mitochondria that cellular respiration occurs and energy is packaged for use throughout the body. Thus dietary fatty acids, which ultimately build all membranes, affect the burning of nutrient fuels — the most fundamental of life’s energetic properties.
Classic artistic renderings of biological membranes are overly simplistic and create an impression of static barriers. Similarly a photograph of a rocket ship streaking toward space says nothing about its actual movement, speed or the hubbub of activity occurring inside of it.
The real biological membrane, containing millions of fatty acid tails vibrating at millions of times per second, with deletions and substitutions in constant progress and biochemical doors opening and closing selectively permitting the passage of food and waste, is a dynamic, an action more than a structure and literally beyond comprehension. It can be described with words, like infinity can be, but not rationally fully grasped.
When one considers that fatty acids comprise the membrane structure of all cells and their enclosed organelles, the breadth of their importance begins to emerge. Membrane fatty acids are indeed the gatekeepers of life.
The dynamic and complex: aspects of fatty acid chemistry help us to understand nutrition at a more meaningful level. Percent fat on a food label is valueless in determining the healthiness of a product. Are the fats saturated or unsaturated? If unsaturated, what are the ratios of omega 9’s to 6’s to 3’s? Have the fats been hydrogenated? If so, what are the levels of potentially toxic trans-isomers? Are the lipids oxidized or complexed with other nutrients such as protein? Does the product contain the nutrients which were associated with the lipid in its natural context, such as antioxidants, certain vitamins, and minerals? What is the stability when subject to time, heat, light and air?
References available within book text, click the following link to view this article on wysong.net:
http://www.wysong.net/articles/lipid/02_article_lipid_chapter_two_lipid_biochemistry.shtml
For further reading, or for more information about, Dr Wysong and the Wysong Corporation please visit www.wysong.net or write to wysong@wysong.net. For resources on healthier foods for people including snacks, and breakfast cereals please visit www.cerealwysong.com.
By: Dr. Randy Wysong
Fatty acids are long-chain “carboxylic” acids, that is, hydrocarbon (alkyl) chains containing the terminal -COOH chemical group. (Fig. 2)
[ Fatty Acid Structure Image ]
http://www.wysong.net/articles/lipid/figures/figure2.jpg
Fatty acids contain from 4 to 22 carbon atoms. They can be saturated, having no double bonds in the carbon chain, mono-unsaturated with one double bond in the chain, or polyunsaturated with several double bonds in the fatty acid.
In nature, triglycerides occur linked (esterified) to glycerol and hence are called glycerides. If solid they are called fats, if liquid they are called oils. One fatty acid combined (esterified) with glycerol is a monoglyceride, two combined is a diglyceride, and three attached to the glycerol backbone (the most possible) is a triglyceride.
Saturated fat (e.g. palmitic and stearic) exclusively fit in the 1 and 3 positions whereas unsaturated fatty acids can distribute randomly among the three positions on the glycerol backbone. A common configuration is thus a saturated fat in positions 1 and 3 and an unsaturated fatty acid in position 2. (Fig. 3)
[ Structure of a Triglyceride Image ]
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Fatty acids containing fewer than 16 carbon atoms, and saturated fatty acids, are largely oxidized to provide energy. Those containing 16 to 22 carbon atoms can also be oxidized for energy, but in addition can be incorporated into cell membranes, regulate metabolism after conversion to eicosanoids (prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, lipoxins, and various other hydroxy analogs discussed later) changed to other fatty acids, or stored in fat (adipose) tissues.
NOMENCLATURE
Abbreviated notations simplify fatty acid nomenclature. In the case of linoleic acid (abbreviated LA; notation 18:2w6). The 18 means the molecule has 18 carbon atoms, the 2 means that there are two double bonds in the molecule and the w6 means the first double bond begins with the sixth carbon atom counting from the methyl (CH3), omega (w) end of the carbon chain. (In many publications omega is designated as a small case “n” instead of” w.”) The other end of the chain, the carboxylic acid end, is termed the delta (?) end. (Fig. 4)
[ Linoleic and Linolenic Acid Structure and Nomenclature Image ]
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The double bonds in the nutritionally important fatty acids are separated by methylene groups (CH2). Hence, the second double bond in LA must begin with the ninth carbon atom. Common fatty acids are detailed in Figure 5.
[Nomenclature and Structure of Common Fatty Acids Image ]
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PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Fatty acids with 16 and l8-carbon chains can participate in the manufacture of phospholipids which are the main structural components of cell membranes. Phospholipids are similar to triglycerides in that fatty acid molecules are attached to a glycerol molecule, a three carbon alcohol (or, less commonly, sphingosine, a more complex amino alcohol). In triglycerides, all three esterifiable positions on a glycerol molecule are occupied by a fatty acid. In a phospholipids, only two are so occupied and the third is esterified to phosphoric acid which may have in turn other compounds attached to it such as choline, serine, glycerol, inositol or ethanolamine. Lecithin, the best known phospholipids, has choline attached to the phosphate and is thus termed phosphatidylcholine. If phosphoric acid alone is attached, the compound is called a phosphotidate. Many molecular variations are also possible by mixing various fatty acids on the glycerol backbone. (Fig. 6)
[Structure of Phospholipids Image ]
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ISOMERS
Figure 7 demonstrates the biochemically important cis- and trans- forms of fatty acids. Notice in the cis- form the hydrogen atoms on the carbons adjacent to the double bond are on the same side of the molecule.
The repulsive forces between these “crowded” hydrogen atoms cause unsaturated fatty acids to assume particular non-linear shapes which play an important role in lipid membrane configuration, fluidity, and in biochemical reactions involving enzymes.
[ Isomers Image ]
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[ Fatty Acid Configurations Image ]
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In the trans- form of fatty acids, the hydrogen atoms are on opposite sides of the molecule and their repulsive forces cancel each other, and thus the molecule is not bent. Although the trans- form is more stable, its chemical properties and biological functions are altered. (Figs. 7 and
BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES
A biological (plasma) membrane surrounds all cells within tissue as well as the organelles lying within the cytoplasm. To help visualize size, if we were the size of bacteria, a cell would be the size of a large auditorium. (In true size, one billion cells fit in one cubic inch.) This cell “auditorium” is housed by a skin only two molecules thick. The various drawings of biochemicals depicted in these pages would therefore be as they would appear from our size as a bacteria, or as a bacteria sized person would see them through a magnifying glass.
The membrane is not a static sac, but rather a complex of chemicals with gates and pumps to control chemical and ionic balances, receptors for stimuli and signal generators. It is made up primarily of phospholipids, protein, glycolipids and cholesterol, all of which of course come directly from food or are synthesized in situ by components of food after they have been broken down by digestion.
Membrane lipids are amphipathic in that they contain both a hydrophilic polar end and a hydrophobic non-polar end. Phospholipids orient themselves into a bilayer sheet in membranes with the hydrophilic ends pointed to the outside and the hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails pointing to the inside. These properties make salts of fatty acids an important functional component of soaps since their fat soluble hydrophobic ends attract “fatty dirt” and their water soluble hydrophilic ends can attract “watery dirt.”
The neck of a fatty acid is located next to the delta carboxyl end and is stiff. The tail portion next to the omega end, if containing cis- double bonds, is highly active, oscillating at a million vibrations per second. (Figs. 8 and 9)
[ Membrane Image ]
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[Triglyceride Fluidity ]
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Lipids, and some proteins within membranes, are also in constant lateral motion. In a bacterium, a single phospholipid will travel from one end to the other in one second. Thus membranes are in effect two-dimensional solutions of an array of oriented molecules.
Although membranes are considered lipid bilayers, almost 50% of the membrane is composed of protein which serves many functional roles. The sugar residues of glycolipids (sphingosine + fatty acid + sugar, such as sphingomyelin) and glycoproteins (sugars attached to membrane proteins) are found protruding on the outer surface of membranes. Cholesterol, as well as the length of fatty acid tails and their degree of saturation, affects membrane fluidity. Cholesterol sandwiched between membrane fatty acids prevents their crystallization. (Fig. 10)
[ Bilipid Cell Membrane Image ]
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The specific spatial configuration and electronegative discontinuity of essential fatty acids pennit linkage with sulfhydral protein groups in membranes to form pi electron quantum mechanical membrane potentials that affect the transport of oxygen into tissues. Also, it is on the lipid membranes of mitochondria that cellular respiration occurs and energy is packaged for use throughout the body. Thus dietary fatty acids, which ultimately build all membranes, affect the burning of nutrient fuels — the most fundamental of life’s energetic properties.
Classic artistic renderings of biological membranes are overly simplistic and create an impression of static barriers. Similarly a photograph of a rocket ship streaking toward space says nothing about its actual movement, speed or the hubbub of activity occurring inside of it.
The real biological membrane, containing millions of fatty acid tails vibrating at millions of times per second, with deletions and substitutions in constant progress and biochemical doors opening and closing selectively permitting the passage of food and waste, is a dynamic, an action more than a structure and literally beyond comprehension. It can be described with words, like infinity can be, but not rationally fully grasped.
When one considers that fatty acids comprise the membrane structure of all cells and their enclosed organelles, the breadth of their importance begins to emerge. Membrane fatty acids are indeed the gatekeepers of life.
The dynamic and complex: aspects of fatty acid chemistry help us to understand nutrition at a more meaningful level. Percent fat on a food label is valueless in determining the healthiness of a product. Are the fats saturated or unsaturated? If unsaturated, what are the ratios of omega 9’s to 6’s to 3’s? Have the fats been hydrogenated? If so, what are the levels of potentially toxic trans-isomers? Are the lipids oxidized or complexed with other nutrients such as protein? Does the product contain the nutrients which were associated with the lipid in its natural context, such as antioxidants, certain vitamins, and minerals? What is the stability when subject to time, heat, light and air?
References available within book text, click the following link to view this article on wysong.net:
http://www.wysong.net/articles/lipid/02_article_lipid_chapter_two_lipid_biochemistry.shtml
For further reading, or for more information about, Dr Wysong and the Wysong Corporation please visit www.wysong.net or write to wysong@wysong.net. For resources on healthier foods for people including snacks, and breakfast cereals please visit www.cerealwysong.com.
By: Dr. Randy Wysong
Dec
16
Please tell me the websites that contains analytical chemistry notes and Organic chemistry?
Filed Under Organic Chemistry | 1 Comment
Where we can get chemistry information both analytical and organic chemistry, is there are any websites which are allowing free downloads. Please suggest me the correct web sites
Dec
13
What is the relationship between glucose and acetic acid ? Please answer this ques in physical chemistry?
Filed Under Physical Chemistry | 1 Comment
View this question from sight of a specialist in physical chemistry ie properties such as having a mixture and asseying changes in viscosity, density, electrical conductance.